Our Members | Institute Of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine.Derniers chiffres du Coronavirus (Covid19)

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Air Amos. Air Brazeau. Renamed Quebec Aviation. Air Caledonia. Air Canada Regional. Air Caravane. Air Cardinal. Air Club International. Air Columbus Vacations. Air Commonwealth Alberta. Air Dogrib. Yellowknife Water Aerodrome.

Air Dorval. Became a subsidiary of Quebecair in Toronto Pearson. Air Integra. Air Link Express. Air Madeleine. Air Manan. Air Manitoba. Winnipeg Lyncrest. Air Maritime. Sainte-Anne-du-Lac Water Aerodrome. Fort McMurray. Air Muskoka. Air Niagara. Catharines Niagara. Air Niagara Express. Air Nord-Ouest. Air Ottawa. Air Park Aviation. Air Sandy. Operated Piper Navajo [40].

Merged with Athabaska Airways to form Transwest Air [41]. Air Wemindji. Air West. Nanaimo Harbour. Air Windsor. Airco Charters. Edmonton City Centre. Airspeed Aviation. Airwave Transport. Airwest Airlines. Aklavik Flying Services. Alberta Northern Airlines. Alert Bay Air Services. Algoma Airways. All West Freight.

Alma Air Services. Alpenglow Aviation. Amigo Airways. Amos Air Service. Angus Aviation. Antarctic Airways. Arctic Air. Arctic Sunwest Charters. Ashuanipi Aviation. Associated Air Lines. Associated Air Taxi. Associated Airways. Associated Helicopters.

Astoria Airlines. Athabaska Airways. Atlantic Central Airlines. Atlantic Island Airways. Atlas Aviation. Atonabee Airways. Aviation Boreal. Aviation Business Flights. Aviation Quebec Labrador. Awood Air. B C Yukon Air Service. Baie Comeau Air Services. Bay Chaleur Air. Bearskin Lake Air Service. Beaver Air Services. Bella Coola Air. Big River Air.

Big Salmon Air. BMR Aviation. Bradley Air Services. British Columbia Air Lines. British Columbia Airways. Kingston Rogers. Charters and Medevac []. Brooker-Wheaton Aviation.

Buffalo Narrows Airways. Bullock Helicopters. Burrard Air. Business Flights. Bute Air. Buzzard Air. Calumet Air Service. Campbell Air. Canada Cargo. Canada Trans-Continental Airways. Canada West Air. Canadian Airlines. Canadian Colonial Airways. Montreal Saint-Hubert. Canadian Metro Airlines. Canadian Pacific Air Lines. Canadian Regional Airlines. Canadian Transcontinental Airways. Canadian Western Airlines. CanAir Cargo. Capital Air Surveys. Capreol and Austin Air Services. Cargaard Aviation.

Thunder Bay. Carter Air Services. Cassidair Services. Centennial Airlines. Central Air Transport. Central Airways. Central British Columbia Airlines. Central Canada Air Lines.

Central Northern Airways. Chaparal Charters. Prince Albert. Chilcotin Cariboo Aviation. Chimo Air Service. Citizen Airways. Coast Western Airlines. Coastal Cargo. Colibri Aviation. Collingwood Air. Colonial Airlines. Commander Air Charter. Charter operator []. Commando Air Transport. Conifair Aviation. Connolly-Dawson Airways. Corporate Express. Cougar Air. CoVal Air. Cree Airways. Operated Cessna []. Curtiss-Reid Flying Service.

Cypress Airlines. Cypress Jetprop Charter. Dominion Aerial Exploration Company. Roberval Water Aerodrome. Dominion Pegasus Helicopters. Dorval Air Transport. Eagle Aviation. Silver Falls Water Aerodrome. Earlton Airways. Eastern Canada Air Lines. Eastern Flying Service. Eastern Provincial Airways.

Eldorado Aviation. Eldorado Radium Silver Express. Edmonton City Centre Port Radium. Enterprise Air. Express Air. Fairchild Aerial Surveys. VII []. Fecteau Transport Aerien. Ottawa Yellowknife Iqaluit. First Nations Transportation. Fugro Aviation Canada. Futura Airlines. Gagnon Air Service. Gander Aviation. Garrison Aviation. Gateway Aviation. Georgian Express. Gilbert’s Flying Service. Gillies Flying Service. Ginger Coote Airways.

Edmonton St. GoAir Citylink. Gogal Air Services. Snow Lake Water Aerodrome. Gold Belt Air Transport. Pickle Lake Water Aerodrome. Golden Voyagairs. Golfe Air Quebec. Gordon Airways. Grand Island Aviation. Gray Rocks Air Service. Great Lakes Air Service.

Great Lakes Airlines. Sarnia Chris Hadfield. Great Northern Airways. Great Western Airways. Greater Toronto Airways. Green Airways. Gulf Air Aviation. Hanna Air. Harrison Airways. Hollinger Ungava Transport. Hooker Air Service. Horne Air. Hornepayne Water Aerodrome.

Hudson Bay Air Transport. Ilford-Riverton Airways. Innu Mikun Airlines. Inter City Airways. International Jet Air. Interprovincial Airlines. Island Valley Airways. Island Westair. Jackson Air Services. Johanneson Flying Services. Stevenson Aerodrome. Juan Air. Kamloops Air Service. Kasper Aviation.

Keir Air Transport. Kelowna Flightcraft Air Charter. Kenting Atlas Aviation. Winnipeg St. Keywinds Air. Little Grand Rapids. Klahanie Air. Fort Langley. Knee Lake Air Service. Knighthawk Air Express. Kootenay Airways. Kootenay Direct Airlines. La Loche Airways. La Ronge Aviation. La Sarre Air Services. Labrador Air Safari. Labrador Airways. Lac Saint-Jean Aviation. Lariviere Air Services. Latham Island Airways. Laurentian Air Services.

Laurentide Air Services. Laval Aviation. Leavens Bros Air Services. Lethbridge Air Services. Lethbridge Aircraft Company. Lethbridge Commercial Airways. Little Red Air Service. Fort Vermilion. Lome Airways. Mackenzie Air. MacKenzie Air Services. Maple Air Services. Maritime Central Airways. Maritime Global Airways. Matane Air Services. May Airlines. McMurray Air Service. Uranium City Water Aerodrome. Metrolitan Air Services. Miksoo Aviation. Meadow Lake. Ministic Air. Minto Airways. Miramichi Air Service.

Douglastown Airfield. Mober Aviation. Mont Laurier Aviation. Montmagny Air Service. Sold to Gaston Gosselin in Operated Aeronca Sedan , Cessna []. Montreal Air Services. Morgan Air Services. Nahanni Air Services.

Nationair Canada. National Aviation. Nav Air Charter. Newfoundland Aero Sales and Services. Newfoundland Air Transport. Newfoundland Airways. Nipawin Air Services. Nordair Metro. North American Airlines. North Canada Air. North Cariboo Flying Service. North Pacific Seaplanes. Prince Rupert Water Aerodrome. North Vancouver Air. North-Wright Air. Northern British Columbia Air Service. Northern Dene Airways. Northern Hawk Aviation.

Northern Mountain Airlines. Northern Sky Aviation. Northern Wings Les Ailes du Nord. Northland Airlines. Northland Air Manitoba. Northward Airlines. Northwinds Northern. Notre-Dame Air Transport. Nunasi-Central Airlines. OK Heli-Logging. Okanagan Air Services. Omineca Air Services. Ontario Central Airlines.

Ontario Northern Airways. Ontario Worldair. Osnaburgh Airways. Otonabee Airways. Owen Sound Air Services. Pacific Airways. Pacific Coastal Airlines. Pacific Spirit Air. Pacific Western Airlines. Pacific Wings Airlines. Parsons Air Services. He has been an author on over manuscripts in the field of infectious diseases and has an extensive track record in infectious diseases research and practice covering clinical, laboratory and epidemiological aspects.

He is an HIV and TB immunologist focused on studying the immune response to these pathogens in affected tissues, and how this relates to what can be observed from the blood. The research goal is to improve understanding of the immunopathology of TB and HIV, using this information to aid in developing novel therapeutic approaches and diagnostic biomarkers. His research has centered on understanding the mechanisms by which the human immune system recognises the Mycobacterium tuberculosis M.

His work has a strong translational component, asking if both classically and non-classically restricted T cells are associated with infection with M. The translational significance of this research is centred on informing the development of novel vaccines and diagnostics for childhood TB. Her current research focuses on HIV broadly neutralising antibodies and their interplay with the evolving virus.

Recent studies published in PloS Pathogens, Nature and Nature Medicine have highlighted the role of viral escape in creating new epitopes and immunotypes, thereby driving the development of neutralisation breadth, with implications for HIV vaccine design.

Research interest in tuberculosis and in developing and testing point of care diagnostics suitable for the developing world. More specifically, the reconstitution of the immune response during antiretroviral treatment, in order to identify correlates of protection including immune mechanisms that lead to reduced susceptibility to TB , and pathogenesis such as the Tuberculosis-Associated Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome, TB-IRIS ; the biosignature of the TB infection spectrum, from latent infection to active disease; preventing TB infection in HIV infected people more effectively; and the pathogenesis of tuberculous meningitis and pericarditis.

The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) is the official legal print publication containing the codification of the general and permanent rules published in the Federal Register by the departments and agencies of the Federal Government. The Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (eCFR) is a continuously updated online version of the CFR. It is not an official . The University of Pennsylvania (Penn or UPenn) is a private Ivy League research university in Philadelphia, replace.meished in , it is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and among the highest ranked universities in the world. It is also one of nine colonial colleges chartered before the U.S. Declaration of Independence. Feeder airline for Canadian Pacific Airlines and later Canadian Airlines International: Air Atonabee: OU: OUL: CITY EXPRESS: Peterborough: – Renamed City Express Operated Saunders ST, Air Baffin: BFF AIR BAFFIN Iqaluit: – Renamed Air Nunavut: Air BC: ZX ABL AIRCOACH Vancouver: – To Air Canada Connector.
Feeder airline for Canadian Pacific Airlines and later Canadian Airlines International: Air Atonabee: OU: OUL: CITY EXPRESS: Peterborough: – Renamed City Express Operated Saunders ST, Air Baffin: BFF AIR BAFFIN Iqaluit: – Renamed Air Nunavut: Air BC: ZX ABL AIRCOACH Vancouver: – To Air Canada Connector. North America’s first transcontinental railroad (known originally as the “Pacific Railroad” and later as the “Overland Route”) was a 1,mile (3, km) continuous railroad line constructed between 18that connected the existing eastern U.S. rail network at Council Bluffs, Iowa with the Pacific coast at the Oakland Long Wharf on San Francisco Bay. The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) is the official legal print publication containing the codification of the general and permanent rules published in the Federal Register by the departments and agencies of the Federal Government. The Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (eCFR) is a continuously updated online version of the CFR. It is not an official . The Institute comprises 33 Full and 13 Associate Members, with 12 Affiliate Members from departments within the University of Cape Town, and 12 Adjunct Members based nationally or .
Feb 08,  · IDM H&S committee meetings for will be held via Microsoft Teams on the following Tuesdays at 12hh 8 February ; 31 May ; 2 August The University of Pennsylvania (Penn or UPenn) is a private Ivy League research university in Philadelphia, replace.meished in , it is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and among the highest ranked universities in the world. It is also one of nine colonial colleges chartered before the U.S. Declaration of Independence. Adjunct membership is for researchers employed by other institutions who collaborate with IDM Members to the extent that some of their own staff and/or postgraduate students may work within the IDM; for 3-year terms, which are renewable.
Feeder airline for Canadian Pacific Airlines and later Canadian Airlines International: Air Atonabee: OU: OUL: CITY EXPRESS: Peterborough: – Renamed City Express Operated Saunders ST, Air Baffin: BFF AIR BAFFIN Iqaluit: – Renamed Air Nunavut: Air BC: ZX ABL AIRCOACH Vancouver: – To Air Canada Connector. The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) is the official legal print publication containing the codification of the general and permanent rules published in the Federal Register by the departments and agencies of the Federal Government. The Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (eCFR) is a continuously updated online version of the CFR. It is not an official . The University of Pennsylvania (Penn or UPenn) is a private Ivy League research university in Philadelphia, replace.meished in , it is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and among the highest ranked universities in the world. It is also one of nine colonial colleges chartered before the U.S. Declaration of Independence. Aug 06,  · Derniers chiffres du Coronavirus issus du CSSE 07/08/ (dimanche 7 août ). Au niveau mondial le nombre total de cas est de , le nombre de guérisons est de 0, le nombre de décès est de 6 Le taux de mortalité est de 1,10%, le taux de guérison est de 0,00% et le taux de personnes encore malade est de 98,90% Pour consulter . Feb 08,  · IDM H&S committee meetings for will be held via Microsoft Teams on the following Tuesdays at 12hh 8 February ; 31 May ; 2 August
 
 

 

Nevis 390 feeder free.Détails de l’évolution du coronavirus dans le monde

 

Indeed, Penn first fielded a team in mid s playing by rules much closer to the rugby union and Association Football code rules relative to American football rules, as such American football rules had not yet been invented [].

Among its earliest games was a game against College of New Jersey which in changed its name to Princeton played in Philadelphia on Saturday, November 11, , which was less than two weeks before Princeton met on November 23, , with Harvard and Columbia to confirm that all their games would be played using the rugby union rules.

The rugby code influence was due, in part, to the fact that some of their students had been educated in English public schools. Among the prominent alumni to play in a 19th-century version of rugby rules that did not allow forward passes or center snaps was John Heisman , namesake of the Heisman Trophy and an graduate of the University of Pennsylvania Law School.

Heisman was instrumental in the first decade of the 20th century in changing the rules to more closely relate to the present rules of American football.

In , Rugby per Rugby Union code was reintroduced to Penn [] as Penn last played per Rugby Union Code in as Penn played rugby per a number of different rugby football rulebooks and codes from through s [] by Frank Villeneuve Nicholson Frank Nicholson rugby union University of Pennsylvania School of Dental Medicine class of , [] who in had captained the Australian national rugby team in its match against England.

Penn played per rugby union code rules at least through , contemporaneously with Penn playing American gridiron football. Evidence of such may be found in an October 22, , Daily Pennsylvanian article quoted below and a yearbook photo [] that rugby per rugby union code was played.

Such is the devotion to English rugby football on the part of University of Pennsylvania’s students from New Zealand , Australia , and England that they meet on Franklin Field at 7 o’clock every morning and practice the game.

The varsity track and football squads monopolize the field to such an extent that the early hours of the morning are the only ones during which the rugby enthusiasts can play. Any time except Friday, Saturday and Sunday, a squad of 25 men may be seen running through the hardest kind of practice after which they may divide into two teams and play a hard game. Once a week, captain CC Walton, ’11 , dental, who hails from New Zealand, gives the enthusiastic players a blackboard talk in which he explains the intricacies of the game in detail.

Though Penn played rugby per rugby union rules from through , [] there is no indication that Penn had a rugby team from through when Penn men’s rugby became permanent due to leadership of Harry “Joe” Edwin Reagan III [] Penn’s College class of and Penn Law class of , who also went onto help create and incorporate in and was Treasurer in of USA Rugby and Oreste P.

Penn women’s rugby team is coached, as of , by a Adam Dick, [] a level certified coach with over 15 years of rugby coaching experience including being the first coach of the first women’s rugby team at the University of Arizona and who was a four-year starter at University of Arizona men’s first XV rugby team and b Philly women’s player Kate Hallinan.

Penn’s men’s rugby team plays in the Ivy Rugby Conference [] and have finished as runners-up in both 15s and 7s in the Conference and won the Ivy Rugby Tournament in In their inaugural year of participation, the Penn men’s rugby team won the Shield Competition, beating local Big Five rival, Temple University , 17—12 in the final.

Penn men’s rugby, as of , [] is coached by Tiger Bax, [] a former professional rugby player hailing from Cape Town, South Africa , whose playing experience includes stints in the Super Rugby competition with the Stormers 15s and Mighty Mohicans 7s , as well as with the Gallagher Premiership Rugby side, Saracens [] and whose coaching experience includes three successful years as coach at Valley Rugby Football Club in Hong Kong ; and Tyler May, from Cherry Hill, New Jersey , who played rugby at Pennsylvania State University where he was a first XV player for three years.

Penn’s graduate and professional schools also fielded rugby teams. Representative from Pennsylvania’s 17th congressional district. Penn first fielded a football team against Princeton at the Germantown Cricket Club in Philadelphia on November 11, Penn football made many contributions to the sport in its early days.

During the s, Penn’s famed coach and alumnus George Washington Woodruff introduced the quarterback kick, a forerunner of the forward pass , as well as the place-kick from scrimmage and the delayed pass. In , , and , Penn was generally regarded as the national champion of collegiate football. While primarily a guard , he also ran, punted , kicked off, and drop-kicked extra points.

The achievements of two of Penn’s other outstanding players from that era, John Heisman, a Law School alumnus, and John Outland , a Penn Med alumnus, are remembered each year with the presentation of the Heisman Trophy to the most outstanding college football player of the year, and the Outland Trophy to the most outstanding college football interior lineman of the year.

Also, each year the Bednarik Award is given to college football’s best defensive player. All three standouts were subsequently elected to the College Football Hall of Fame , as was their coach, George Munger a star running back at Penn in the early s. Bednarik went on to play for 12 years with the Philadelphia Eagles , and was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Penn’s game against University of California at Berkeley on September 29, in front of a crowd of 60, at Franklin Field , was first college football game to be broadcast in color.

Penn basketball is steeped in tradition. Dartmouth twice finished second in the tournament in the s, but that was before the beginning of formal League play. At least 43 different Penn alumni have earned 81 Olympic medals 26 gold.

University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine class of who won the silver medal in the shot put and a bronze medal for the hammer throw; [] [] [] 3 John Walter Tewksbury Penn Dental School class of who won five ‘medals’ gold in the meter dash and meter hurdles, silver in the 60 meter dash and meter dash, and a bronze in the meter hurdles ; [] 4 Irving Baxter Penn Law class of who won five “medals” gold in both the men’s high jump and men’s pole vault and silver in all three of the standing jumps long, triple, and high ; [] [] 5 Meredith Colket College Class of BS , Penn Law class of who won the silver ‘medal’ in the pole vault , [] 6 Truxton Hare Penn Law class of who won the silver ‘medal’ in the hammer throw [] and at Summer Olympics held in St.

Louis, Missouri , won i bronze medal in the all-around discipline which consisted of yard run, shot put, high jump, yard walk, hammer throw, pole vault, yard hurdles, long jump and one mile run , and ii gold medal as part of United States tug of war team , [] and 7 George Orton University of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Arts and Sciences class of MA and class of Ph.

In the Summer Olympics held in Tokyo, Japan, in summer of , nine Penn students and alumni played in six different sports from six different countries. Franklin Field is where the Quakers play football, field hockey , lacrosse , sprint football and track and field and formerly baseball, soccer, and rugby.

It is the oldest stadium still operating for football games and was the first stadium to sport two tiers. It hosted the first commercially televised football game, was once the home field of the Philadelphia Eagles, and was the site of 18 Army—Navy games between and Today it is also used by Penn students for recreation such as intramural and club sports, including touch football and cricket.

Franklin Field hosts the annual collegiate track and field event “the Penn Relays. Penn’s home court, the Palestra , is an arena used for men’s and women’s basketball teams, volleyball teams, wrestling team, and Philadelphia Big Five basketball, as well as high school sporting events.

Penn’s River Fields hosts a number of athletic fields including the Rhodes Soccer Stadium for both women’s and men’s soccer, which includes elevated stands for spectators, a degree rotating scoreboard, and the Rapaport Family Suite , the Ellen Vagelos C’90 Field Hockey Field with special artificial turf , and Irving “Moon” Mondschein Throwing Complex for javelin , shot put , discus , and Hammer throw. Twenty-nine of the boycotting nations participated in the Boycott Games.

Francis Hopkinson , signed the Declaration of Independence and designed the first official American flag. George Clymer , Founding Father ; early advocate for complete independence from Britain.

William Henry Harrison , 9th president of the United States. Donald Trump , 45th president of the United States. Martha Hughes Cannon , first female state senator elected in the United States. Ed Rendell , 45th governor of Pennsylvania ; 96th mayor of Philadelphia. Jon Huntsman Jr. Arlen Specter , former U. William Brennan Jr. Kwame Nkrumah , first president of Ghana , and previously first prime minister of Ghana. Alassane Ouattara , President of Cote de Ivoire since Drew Gilpin Faust , 28th president of Harvard University.

William Wrigley, Jr. Wrigley Jr. Ezra Pound , poet and critic; a major figure in the early modernist poetry movement. Warren Buffett , successful investor [] []. Stanley B.

Prusiner , neurologist and biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Christian B. Anfinsen , biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Pei , Pritzker Prize -winning architect. Penn has produced many alumni that have distinguished themselves in the sciences, academia, politics, business, military, arts, and media.

Some eleven heads of state or government have attended or graduated from Penn, including former president Donald Trump ; [] former president William Henry Harrison , who attended the medical school for less than a semester; [] former prime minister of the Philippines Cesar Virata ; the first president of Nigeria , Nnamdi Azikiwe ; the first president of Ghana , Kwame Nkrumah ; and the current president of Ivory Coast , Alassane Ouattara.

Other notable politicians who hold a degree from Penn include India’s former minister of state for finance Jayant Sinha , [] [ better source needed ] former ambassador and Utah governor Jon Huntsman, Jr.

The university’s presence in the judiciary in and outside of the United States is also notable. Brennan , Owen J. Roberts and James Wilson ; Supreme Court justices of foreign states e. Penn is also a top feeder school for careers in finance and investment banking on Wall Street [] and its alumni have a strong presence in financial and economic life. Indeed, Penn alumni include 64 living billionaires, 28 of whom are undergraduate alumni billionaires as Penn has the second highest number of undergrad billionaire alumni with only Harvard [with only one more but Penn undergraduate alumni billionaires have accumulated over 65 billion more in wealth than Harvard’s ], [] [33] Penn has educated several governors of central banks including Dawne Williams St.

Penn alumni who are founders of technology companies include Ralph J. Among other distinguished alumni are the current or past presidents of over one hundred universities including Harvard University Drew Gilpin Faust , Harvard’s first female president , Cornell University Martha E.

Within the ranks of Penn’s most historic graduates are also eight signers of the Declaration of Independence [25] [26] and seven signers of the United States Constitution [27] and 24 members of the Continental Congress. As of , there have been 24 Nobel Laureates affiliated see List of Nobel laureates by university affiliation , with the University of Pennsylvania, [] [] of whom four are current faculty members and eight are alumni.

The New York region of the university maintains an office in the Penn Club. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Private research university. This article is about the private Ivy League research university in Philadelphia. For the public research university with campuses across Pennsylvania, see Pennsylvania State University.

This article may be too long to read and navigate comfortably. Its current readable prose size is kilobytes. Please consider splitting content into sub-articles, condensing it, or adding subheadings. Please discuss this issue on the article’s talk page. February Main article: University of Pennsylvania College Houses. Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania facing northwest towards front entrance.

Nitzsche, []. See also: The Daily Pennsylvanian. Main article: Penn Quakers. Main article: Penn Quakers football. Main article: Penn Quakers men’s basketball.

Main article: List of University of Pennsylvania people. See also: List of Nobel laureates affiliated with the University of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia portal Pennsylvania portal. When Franklin’s institution was established, it inhabited a schoolhouse built on November 14, , for another school, which never came to practical fruition.

After initially designating as its founding date, Penn later considered to be its founding date for more than a century, including alumni observing a centennial celebration in The primary purpose of the conference was to standardize American academic regalia, which was accomplished through the adoption of the Intercollegiate Code on Academic Costume.

This formalized protocol included a provision that henceforth academic processions would place visiting dignitaries and other officials in the order of their institution’s founding dates. The following year, Penn’s The Alumni Register magazine, published by the General Alumni Society, began a campaign to retroactively revise the University’s founding date to , to become older than Princeton, which had been chartered in Three years later in , Penn’s board of trustees acceded to this alumni initiative and officially changed its founding date from to , affecting its rank in academic processions as well as the informal bragging rights that come with the age-based hierarchy in academia generally.

See “Building Penn’s Brand” for more details on why Penn did this. However, Princeton has not done so, and a Princeton historian says that “the facts do not warrant” such an interpretation. Other American universities that began as a colonial-era, early version of secondary schools such as St. John’s College founded as “King William’s School” in and the University of Delaware founded as “the Free Academy” in choose to march based upon the date they became institutions of higher learning.

Penn History Professor Edgar Potts Cheyney was a member of the Penn class of who played a leading role in the alumni campaign to change the university’s formal founding date. According to Cheyney’s later history of the event, the university did indeed consider its founding date to be for almost a century. However, it was changed with good reason, and primarily due to a publication about the university issued by the U.

Commissioner of Education written by Francis Newton Thorpe, a fellow alumnus, and colleague in the Penn history department. The year is the date of the establishment of the first educational trust that the University had taken upon itself. Cheyney states further that “it might be considered a lawyer’s date; it is a familiar legal practice in considering the date of any institution to seek out the oldest trust it administers”.

He also points out that Harvard’s founding date is also the year in which the Massachusetts General Court state legislature resolved to establish a fund in a year’s time for a “School or College”. As well, Princeton claims its founding date as , the date of its first charter. However, the exact words of the charter are unknown, the number and names of the trustees in the charter are unknown, and no known original is extant. Except for Columbia University, the majority of the American Colonial Colleges do not have clear-cut dates of foundation.

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Archived from the original on November 25, History of the University of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press: 46— Archived from the original on May 24, Cheyney was a Penn professor and alumnus from the class of who advocated the change in Penn’s founding date in to appear older than both Princeton and Columbia. The explanation, “It will have been noted that is the date of the creation of the earliest of the many educational trusts the University has taken upon itself,” is Professor Cheyney’s justification pp.

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See “St. Elmo Club”. Elmo Club. Archived from the original on May 26, Elmo “. Retrieved April 7, Budd — who received his A. Retrieved May 12, Puritan Boston and Quaker Philadelphia. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers. Archived from the original on February 19, Retrieved March 16, Archived PDF from the original on March 2, Retrieved April 26, Philadelphia: International Printing Company. Retrieved April 5, — via The Internet Archive.

Penn Today. Retrieved March 11, Spring Chemical Heritage Magazine. Collier’s New Encyclopedia. New York: P. Retrieved February 28, Retrieved March 15, Retrieved December 24, Archived from the original on March 2, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Centre For Public Impact. September 2, Retrieved April 24, Archived from the original on February 18, Retrieved March 1, Archived from the original on February 10, Retrieved August 25, Rutman; University of Pennsylvania August National Academy of Sciences.

Archived from the original on August 6, The university was put on probation by OPRR. The Head Injury Clinic was closed. The chief veterinarian was fired, the administration of animal facilities was consolidated, new training programs for investigators and staff were initiated, and quarterly progress reports to OPRR were required. The New York Times. Archived from the original on July 9, Retrieved August 17, Retrieved June 26, Archived from the original on December 15, University of Pennsylvania Almanac.

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University of Pennsylvania Archives: University of Pennsylvania. Archived from the original on June 7, Retrieved October 5, Archived from the original on January 21, Retrieved November 10, BLT Architects. Archived from the original on August 12, Pennovation Works University of Pennsylvania.

Retrieved March 19, Archived from the original Searchable database on July 21, Retrieved March 25, Note: This includes George E. Thomas June Archived from the original PDF on December 16, Retrieved December 16, Penn Libraries.

Archived from the original on March 17, Archived from the original on December 11, Press of E. Abernethy Benton Spruance, the Artist and the Man. Associated University Presses. City of Philadelphia. April 18, The High Line. Retrieved February 29, Retrieved March 18, Areas of interest span the basic sciences of chemistry, biochemistry and microbiology, through to pharmacology and clinical medicine, in the areas of mycobacterial pathogenesis and TB drug discovery research.

Honorary Professor at UCT. His primary research interests are C-type lectin receptors and their role in homeostasis and immunity, with a particular focus on antifungal immunity. His research interests revolve around investigating immune regulation and dysregulation in the context of HIV infection or exposure. He focuses on Immune ontogeny in HIV exposed infants, placental investigations and pre-term birth, and epithelial immunity in the foreskin.

Her Research Unit is involved with clinical research, epidemiology and operational research, and is a treatment site for HIV infected adults and children. From North Platte, Nebraska elevation 2, feet or metres , the railroad proceeded westward and upward along a new path across the Nebraska Territory and Wyoming Territory then part of the Dakota Territory along the north bank of the South Platte River and into what would become the state of Wyoming at Lone Pine, Wyoming.

Evans Pass was located between what would become the new “railroad” towns of Cheyenne and Laramie. The railroad gained about 3, feet m in the miles km climb to Cheyenne from North Platte, Nebraska—about 15 feet per mile 2. This “new” route had never become an emigrant route because it lacked the water and grass to feed the emigrants’ oxen and mules. Steam locomotives did not need grass, and the railroad companies could drill wells for water if necessary.

Coal had been discovered in Wyoming and reported on by John C. Union Pacific needed coal to fuel its steam locomotives on the almost treeless plains across Nebraska and Wyoming. Coal shipments by rail were also looked on as a potentially major source of income—this potential is still being realized. The Union Pacific reached the new railroad town of Cheyenne in December , having laid about miles km that year.

They paused over the winter, preparing to push the track over Evans Sherman’s pass. At 8, feet 2, m , Evans pass is the highest point reached on the transcontinental railroad. About 4 miles 6. The Dale Creek Crossing was one of their more difficult railroad engineering challenges. The eastern and western approaches to the bridge site, near the highest elevation on the transcontinental railroad, required cutting through granite for nearly a mile on each side.

Beyond Dale Creek, railroad construction paused at what became the town of Laramie, Wyoming to build a bridge across the Laramie River. Located 35 miles 56 km from Evans pass, Union Pacific connected the new “railroad” town of Cheyenne to Denver and its Denver Pacific Railway and Telegraph Company railroad line in Elevated 6, feet 1, m above sea level, and sitting on the new Union Pacific route with a connection to Denver, Cheyenne was chosen to become a major railroad center and was equipped with extensive railroad yards, maintenance facilities, and a Union Pacific presence.

Its location made it a good base for helper locomotives to couple to trains with snowplows to help clear the tracks of snow or help haul heavy freight over Evans pass. The Union Pacific’s junction with the Denver Railroad with its connection to Kansas City, Kansas , Kansas City, Missouri and the railroads east of the Missouri River again increased Cheyenne’s importance as the junction of two major railroads.

Cheyenne later became Wyoming’s largest city and the capital of the new state of Wyoming. The railroad even dipped into what would become the new state of Colorado after crossing the North Platte River as it followed the South Platte River west into what would become Julesburg before turning northwest along Lodgepole Creek into Wyoming. The Green River was crossed with a new bridge, and the new “railroad” town of Green River constructed there after the tracks reached the Green River on October 1, —the last big river to cross.

On December 4, , the Union Pacific reached Evanston, having laid almost miles km of track over the Green River and the Laramie Plains that year. By , Evanston became a significant maintenance shop town equipped to carry out extensive repairs on the cars and steam locomotives. To speed up construction as much as possible, Union Pacific contracted several thousand Mormon workers to cut, fill, trestle, bridge, blast and tunnel its way down the rugged Weber River Canyon to Ogden, Utah , ahead of the railroad construction.

The Mormon and Union Pacific rail work was joined in the area of the present-day border between Utah and Wyoming. Work on this tunnel started in October and was completed six months later. Temporary tracks were laid around it and Tunnels 3 feet or metres , 4 feet or 91 metres and 5 feet or metres to continue work on the tracks west of the tunnels. The tunnels were all made with the new dangerous nitroglycerine explosive, which expedited work but caused some fatal accidents.

A historic marker has been placed there. The tracks reached Ogden, Utah , on March 8, , [69] although finishing work would continue on the tracks, tunnels and bridges in Weber Canyon for over a year. Only partial payment was secured through court actions against Union Pacific. The Central Pacific laid miles 1, km of track, starting in Sacramento, California, in and continuing over the rugged 7,foot 2, m Sierra Nevada mountains at Donner Pass into the new state of Nevada. The elevation change from Sacramento elev.

The discovery and detailed map survey with profiles and elevations of this route over the Sierra Nevada is credited to Theodore Judah , chief engineer of the Central Pacific Railroad until his death in As the railroad climbed out of Sacramento up to Donner Summit, there was only one 3-mile 4.

As the railroad advanced, their freight rates with the combined rail and wagon shipments would become much more competitive. When the railroad reached Reno, it had the majority of all Nevada freight shipments, and the price of goods in Nevada dropped significantly as the freight charges to Nevada dropped significantly. The rail route over the Sierras followed the general route of the Truckee branch of the California Trail , going east over Donner Pass and down the rugged Truckee River valley.

The route over the Sierra had been plotted out by Judah in preliminary surveys before his death in Judah’s deputy, Samuel S. To build the new railroad, detailed surveys had to be run that showed where the cuts, fills, trestles, bridges and tunnels would have to be built. Work that was identified as taking a long time was started as soon as its projected track location could be ascertained and work crews, supplies and road work equipment found to be sent ahead.

Tunnels, trestles and bridges were nearly all built this way. The spread-out nature of the work resulted in the work being split into two divisions, with L.

Other assistant engineers were assigned to specific tasks such as building a bridge, tunnel or trestle which was done by the workers under experienced supervisors. In total, the Central Pacific had eleven tunnel projects Nos.

The tunnels were usually built by drilling a series of holes in the tunnel face, filling them with black powder and detonating it to break the rock free. These works had started production in after the U.

Civil War had cut off shipments of black powder from the East to the mining and railroad industry of California and Nevada. The Central Pacific was a prolific user of black powder, often using up to kegs of 25 pounds 11 kg each per day. The summit tunnel Number 6 , 1, feet m , was started in late , well ahead of the railhead. Through solid granite, the summit tunnel progressed at a rate of only about 0.

The workers were pulled off the summit tunnel and the track grading east of Donner Pass in the winter of —66 as there was no way to supply them, nor quarters they could have lived in. The crews were transferred to work on bridges and track grading on the Truckee River canyon. In they put in a foot 38 m vertical shaft in the center of the summit tunnel and started work towards the east and west tunnel faces, giving four working faces on the summit tunnel to speed up progress. A steam engine off an old locomotive was brought up with much effort over the wagon road and used as a winch driver to help remove loosened rock from the vertical shaft and two working faces.

By the winter of —67, work had progressed sufficiently and a camp had been built for workers on the summit tunnel which allowed work to continue. The cross section of a tunnel face was a foot-wide 4. Progress on the tunnel sped up to over 1. They used nitroglycerin to deepen the summit tunnel to the required foot 4. Nearly all other tunnels were worked on both tunnel faces and met in the middle. Depending on the material the tunnels penetrated, they were left unlined or lined with brick, rock walls or timber and post.

Some tunnels were designed to bend in the middle to align with the track bed curvature. Despite this potential complication, nearly all the different tunnel center lines met within 2 inches 5. The detailed survey work that made these tunnel digs as precise as required was nearly all done by the Canadian-born and -trained Lewis Clement, the CPRR’s Chief Assistant Engineer and Superintendent of Track, and his assistants.

Hills or ridges in front of the railroad road bed would have to have a flat-bottomed, V-shaped “cut” made to get the railroad through the ridge or hill. The type of material determined the slope of the V and how much material would have to be removed. Ideally, these cuts would be matched with valley fills that could use the dug out material to bring the road bed up to grade— cut and fill construction.

In the s there was no heavy equipment that could be used to make these cuts or haul it away to make the fills. To blast a V-shaped cut out, they had to drill several holes up to 20 feet 6.

Since the Central Pacific was in a hurry, they were profligate users of black powder to blast their way through the hills. The only disadvantage came when a nearby valley needed fill to get across it.

The explosive technique often blew most of the potential fill material down the hillside, making it unavailable for fill. The existing railroad made transporting and putting material in valleys much easier—load it on railway dump cars, haul where needed and dump it over the side of the trestle.

The route down the eastern Sierras was done on the south side of Donner Lake with a series of switchbacks carved into the mountain. The Truckee River, which drains Lake Tahoe , had already found and scoured out the best route across the Carson Range of mountains east of the Sierras. The route down the rugged Truckee River Canyon, including required bridges, was done ahead of the main summit tunnel completion. To expedite the building of the railroad through the Truckee River canyon, the Central Pacific hauled two small locomotives, railcars , rails and other material on wagons and sleighs to what is now Truckee, California and worked the winter of —68 on their way down Truckee canyon ahead of the tracks being completed to Truckee.

In Truckee canyon, five Howe truss bridges had to be built. This gave them a head start on getting to the “easy” miles across Nevada. With the advent of more efficient oil fired steam and later diesel electric power to drive plows, flangers, spreaders, and rotary snow plows, most of the wooden snowsheds have long since been removed as obsolete.

Tunnels 1—5 and Tunnel 13 of the original s tunnels on Track 1 of the Sierra grade remain in use today, while additional new tunnels were later driven when the grade was double tracked over the first quarter of the twentieth century. Judah between Soda Springs and Eder, which was opened in when the summit section of the grade was double tracked.

This routing change was made because the Track 2 and Tunnel 41 Summit crossing is far easier and less expensive to maintain and keep open in the harsh Sierra winters.

On June 18, , the Central Pacific reached Reno, Nevada , after completing miles km of railroad up and over the Sierras from Sacramento, California. By then the railroad had already been prebuilt down the Truckee River on the much flatter land from Reno to Wadsworth, Nevada , where they bridged the Truckee for the last time.

From there, they struggled across a forty mile desert to the end of the Humboldt river at the Humboldt Sink. One of the most troublesome problems found on this route along the Humboldt was at Palisade Canyon near Carlin, Nevada , where for 12 miles 19 km the line had to be built between the river and basalt cliffs.

Water for the steam locomotives was provided by wells, springs, or pipelines to nearby water sources. Water was often pumped into the water tanks with windmills. Train fuel and water cranes for the early trains with steam locomotives may have been as often as every 10 miles 16 km.

On one memorable occasion, not far from Promontory, the Central Pacific crews organized an army of workers and five train loads of construction material, and laid 10 miles 16 km of track on a prepared rail bed in one day—-a record that still stands today. The Central Pacific and Union Pacific raced to get as much track laid as possible, and the Central Pacific laid about miles km of track from Reno to Promontory Summit in the one year before the Last Spike was driven on May 10, Central Pacific had 1, freight cars available by May , with more under construction in their Sacramento yard.

Major repairs and maintenance on the Central Pacific rolling stock was done in their Sacramento maintenance yard. Near the end of , Central Pacific had locomotives, of which 2 had two drivers drive wheels , had four drivers, and 50 had six drivers.

The steam locomotives had been purchased in the eastern states and shipped to California by sea. Thirty-six additional locomotives were built and coming west, and twenty-eight more were under construction. There was a shortage of passenger cars and more had to be ordered. Subsequent to the railhead’s meeting at Promontory Summit, Utah Territory, the San Joaquin River Bridge at Mossdale Crossing near present-day Lathrop, California was completed on September 8, with the first through freight train carrying freight from the East Coast leaving Sacramento and crossing the bridge to arrive that evening at the Alameda Wharf on San Francisco Bay.

Train ferries transferred some railroad cars to and from the Oakland wharves and tracks to wharves and tracks in San Francisco. Before the CPRR was completed, developers were building other feeder railroads like the Virginia and Truckee Railroad to the Comstock Lode diggings in Virginia City, Nevada , and several different extensions in California and Nevada to reach other cities there. Some of their main cargo was the thousands of cords 3. This new railroad connected to the Central Pacific near Reno , and went through Carson City , the new capital of Nevada.

After the transcontinental railroads were completed, many other railroads were built to connect up to other population centers in Utah, Wyoming, Kansas, Colorado, Oregon, Washington territories, etc.

In , the Kansas Pacific Railway started building the Hannibal Bridge , a swing bridge across the Missouri River between Kansas City, Missouri and Kansas City, Kansas which connected railroads on both sides of the Missouri while still allowing passage of paddle steamers on the river. After completion, this became another major east—west railroad.

To speed completion of the Kansas Pacific Railroad to Denver, construction started east from Denver in March to meet the railroad coming west from Kansas city. Denver was now firmly on track to becoming the largest city and the future capital of Colorado. The original transcontinental railroad route did not pass through the two biggest cities in the so-called Great American Desert — Denver, Colorado , and Salt Lake City, Utah.

Feeder railroad lines were soon built to service these two and other cities and states along the route. Modern-day Interstate 80 roughly follows the path of the railroad from Sacramento across modern day California, Nevada, Wyoming and Nebraska, with a few exceptions. Most significantly, the two routes are different between Wells, Nevada and Echo, Utah. The railroad was originally routed along the north shore, and later with the Lucin Cutoff directly across the center of the Great Salt Lake, passing through the city of Ogden instead of Salt Lake City.

The railroad crosses the Wasatch Mountains via a much gentler grade through Weber Canyon. Most of the other deviations are in mountainous areas where interstate highways allow for grades up to six-percent grades, which allows them to go many places the railroads had to go around, since their goal was to hold their grades to less than two percent.

Most of the capital investment needed to build the railroad was generated by selling government-guaranteed bonds granted per mile of completed track to interested investors. The Federal donation of right-of-way saved money and time as it did not have to be purchased from others. The financial incentives and bonds would hopefully cover most of the initial capital investment needed to build the railroad.

The bonds would be paid back by the sale of government-granted land, as well as prospective passenger and freight income. Most of the engineers and surveyors who figured out how and where to build the railroad on the Union Pacific were engineering college trained.

Many of Union Pacific engineers and surveyors were Union Army veterans including two generals who had learned their railroad trade keeping the trains running and tracks maintained during the U. Civil War. After securing the finances and selecting the engineering team, the next step was to hire the key personnel and prospective supervisors. Nearly all key workers and supervisors were hired because they had previous railroad on-the-job training, knew what needed to be done and how to direct workers to get it done.

After the key personnel were hired, the semi-skilled jobs could be filled if there was available labor. The engineering team’s main job was to tell the workers where to go, what to do, how to do it, and provide the construction material they would need to get it done. Survey teams were put out to produce detailed contour maps of the options on the different routes. The engineering team looked at the available surveys and chose what was the “best” route. Survey teams under the direction of the engineers closely led the work crews and marked where and by how much hills would have to be cut and depressions filled or bridged.

Coordinators made sure that construction and other supplies were provided when and where needed, and additional supplies were ordered as the railroad construction consumed the supplies. Specialized bridging, explosive and tunneling teams were assigned to their specialized jobs. Some jobs like explosive work, tunneling, bridging, heavy cuts or fills were known to take longer than others, so the specialized teams were sent out ahead by wagon trains with the supplies and men to get these jobs done by the time the regular track-laying crews arrived.

Finance officers made sure the supplies were paid for and men paid for their work. An army of men had to be coordinated and a seemingly never-ending chain of supplies had to be provided. The Central Pacific road crew set a track-laying record by laying 10 mi 16 km of track in a single day, commemorating the event with a signpost beside the track for passing trains to see.

In addition to the track-laying crews, other crews were busy setting up stations with provisions for loading fuel, water and often also mail, passengers and freight. Personnel had to be hired to run these stations. Maintenance depots had to be built to keep all of the equipment repaired and operational. Telegraph operators had to be hired to man each station to keep track of where the trains were so that trains could run in each direction on the available single track without interference or accidents.

Sidings had to be built to allow trains to pass. Provision had to be made to store and continually pay for coal or wood needed to run the steam locomotives. Water towers had to be built for refilling the water tanks on the engines, and provision made to keep them full. The majority of the Union Pacific track across the Nebraska and Wyoming territories was built by veterans of the Union and Confederate armies, as well as many recent immigrants.

Brigham Young , President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints , landed contracts with the Union Pacific that offered jobs for around 2, members of the church with the hope that the railroad would support commerce in Utah.

Church members built most of the road through Utah. The Union Pacific train carrying him to the final spike ceremony was held up by a strike by unpaid workers in Piedmont, Wyoming until he paid them for their work. Representatives of Brigham Young had less success, and failed in court to force him to honor the contract. The manual labor to build the Central Pacific’s roadbed, bridges and tunnels was done primarily by many thousands of emigrant workers from China under the direction of skilled non-Chinese supervisors.

The Chinese were commonly referred to at the time as ” Celestials ” and China as the “Celestial Kingdom. The construction work involved an immense amount of manual labor. Initially, Central Pacific had a hard time hiring and keeping unskilled workers on its line, as many would leave for the prospect of far more lucrative gold or silver mining options elsewhere.

Despite the concerns expressed by Charles Crocker , one of the “big four” and a general contractor, that the Chinese were too small in stature [87] and lacking previous experience with railroad work, they decided to try them anyway. Most of these Chinese workers were represented by a Chinese “boss” who translated, collected salaries for his crew, kept discipline and relayed orders from an American general supervisor.

Most Chinese workers spoke only rudimentary or no English, and the supervisors typically only learned rudimentary Chinese. Many more workers were imported from the Guangdong Province of China, which at the time, beside great poverty, suffered from the violence of the Taiping Rebellion.

Most Chinese workers were planning on returning with their newfound “wealth” when the work was completed. Most of the men received between one and three dollars per day, the same as unskilled white workers; but the workers imported directly from China sometimes received less. A snapshot of workers in late showed about 3, Chinese and 1, white workers employed on the railroad. Nearly all of the white workers were in supervisory or skilled craft positions and made more money than the Chinese.

Once the Central Pacific was out of the Sierras and the Carson Range, progress sped up considerably as the railroad bed could be built over nearly flat ground.

In those days, the Central Pacific once did a section of 10 miles 16 km of track in one day as a “demonstration” of what they could do on flat ground like most of the Union Pacific had in Wyoming and Nebraska. The track laying was divided up into various parts.

In advance of the track layers, surveyors consulting with engineers determined where the track would go. Workers then built and prepared the roadbed, dug or blasted through hills, filled in washes, built trestles, bridges or culverts across streams or valleys, made tunnels if needed, and laid the ties. The actual track-laying gang would then lay rails on the previously laid ties positioned on the roadbed, drive the spikes, and bolt the fishplate bars to each rail.

At the same time, another gang would distribute telegraph poles and wire along the grade, while the cooks prepared dinner and the clerks busied themselves with accounts, records, using the telegraph line to relay requests for more materials and supplies or communicate with supervisors.

Usually the workers lived in camps built near their work site. Supplies were ordered by the engineers and hauled by rail, possibly then to be loaded on wagons if they were needed ahead of the railhead. Camps were moved when the railhead moved a significant distance. Later, as the railroad started moving long distances every few days, some railroad cars had bunkhouses built in them that moved with the workers—the Union Pacific had used this technique since Carts pulled by mules, and horses were about the only labor-saving devices available then.

Lumber and ties were usually provided by independent contractors who cut, hauled and sawed the timber as required. Tunnels were blasted through hard rock by drilling holes in the rock face by hand and filling them with black powder.

Sometimes cracks were found which could be filled with powder and blasted loose. The loosened rock would be collected and hauled out of the tunnel for use in a fill area or as roadbed, or else dumped over the side as waste. A foot or so advance on a tunnel face was a typical day’s work. Some tunnels took almost a year to finish and the Summit Tunnel, the longest, took almost two years. In the final days of working in the Sierras, the recently invented nitroglycerin explosive was introduced and used on the last tunnels including Summit Tunnel.

Supply trains carried all the necessary material for the construction up to the railhead, with mule or horse-drawn wagons carrying it the rest of the ways if required. Ties were typically unloaded from horse-drawn or mule-drawn wagons and then placed on the track ballast and leveled to get ready for the rails. Rails, which weighed the most, were often kicked off the flatcars and carried by gangs of men on each side of the rail to where needed.

The rails just in front of the rail car would be placed first, measured for the correct gauge with gauge sticks and then nailed down on the ties with spike mauls. The fishplates connecting the ends of the rails would be bolted on and then the car pushed by hand to the end of the rail and rail installation repeated.

Track ballast was put between the ties as they progressed. Where a proper railbed had already been prepared, the work progressed rapidly. Constantly needed supplies included “food, water, ties, rails, spikes, fishplates, nuts and bolts, track ballast, telegraph poles, wire, firewood or coal on the Union Pacific and water for the steam train locomotives, etc.

Since juggling railroad cars took time on flat ground, where wagon transport was easier, the rail cars would be brought to the end of the line by steam locomotive, unloaded, and the flat car returned immediately to a siding for another loaded car of either ballast or rails. Temporary sidings were often installed where it could be easily done to expedite getting needed supplies to the railhead. The railroad tracks, spikes, telegraph wire, locomotives, railroad cars, supplies etc.

Some freight was put on Clipper ships which could do the trip in about days. Some passengers and high-priority freight were shipped over the newly completed as of Panama Railroad across the Isthmus of Panama. Using paddle steamers to and from Panama, this shortcut could be traveled in as little as 40 days. Supplies were normally offloaded at the Sacramento, California , docks where the railroad started. After great initial progress along the Sacramento Valley, construction was slowed, first by the foothills of the Sierra Nevada , then by cutting a railroad bed up the mountains themselves.

As they progressed higher in the mountains, winter snowstorms and a shortage of reliable labor compounded the problems. On January 7, , a want ad for 5, laborers was placed in the Sacramento Union. Emigrants from poverty stricken regions of China, many of which suffered from the strife of the Taiping Rebellion , seemed to be more willing to tolerate the living and working conditions on the railroad construction, and progress on the railroad continued.

The University of Pennsylvania (Penn or UPenn) is a private Ivy League research university in Philadelphia, replace.meished in , it is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and among the highest ranked universities in the world. It is also one of nine colonial colleges chartered before the U.S. Declaration of Independence. The economy of Croatia is a developing high-income service based economy with the tertiary sector accounting for 60% of total gross domestic product (GDP). Croatia joined the World Trade Organization in , NATO in and became a member of the European Union on 1 July The Croatian economy was badly affected by the financial crisis which, together with . North America’s first transcontinental railroad (known originally as the “Pacific Railroad” and later as the “Overland Route”) was a 1,mile (3, km) continuous railroad line constructed between 18that connected the existing eastern U.S. rail network at Council Bluffs, Iowa with the Pacific coast at the Oakland Long Wharf on San Francisco Bay.

Established in[note 1] it is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States нажмите сюда among the highest envis universities in the world. It is also nevis 390 feeder free of nine colonial colleges chartered before the U. Declaration of Independence. Benjamin Franklinthe nevis 390 feeder free founder and first president, advocated for an educational institution that trained leaders in academia, commerce, and public service.

Penn has four undergraduate schools as well as twelve graduate and professional schools. Penn’s “One University Policy” allows students to enroll in classes in any of Penn’s twelve schools.

Penn is also home to nevs first ” student union ” building and organization Houston Hall, the first Catholic student club in North America Newman Center, [20] the first double-decker college football stadium Franklin Fieldwhen second deck was constructed[21] [22] and Morris Arboretumthe official arboretum of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.

As ofdistinguished alumni and trustees include 2 Presidents of the United States[24] 3 U. Supreme Court justices, 32 U. House of Representatives12 U. Cabinet Secretaries46 U. Constitution[27] 24 members of the Continental Congress9 foreign heads of state[note 2] and ambassadors to 51 different countries. The University of Pennsylvania considers itself the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States, though this is contested by Princeton and Columbia Universities.

Ina group of Philadelphians joined to erect a great preaching hall for the traveling evangelist George Whitefieldwho toured the American colonies delivering open-air sermons.

The building was designed and built by Edmund Woolley and was the largest building in the city at the time, drawing thousands of people the first time in which it was preached. According 30 Franklin’s autobiography, it was in when he first had the idea to establish an academy, “thinking the Rev.

Richard Peters a fit person to superintend such an institution”. However, Peters declined a casual inquiry from Franklin though Peters was one of Penn’s founding trustees [ to ], President of board of trustees [ to ], and Treasurer of nevis 390 feeder free of trustees [ 309 ] [60] and nothing further was done by Franklin for another six years when he again contacted not just Peters but many others.

He advocated an innovative concept of higher education, one which would teach both the ornamental knowledge of the arts and the practical skills necessary for making a living and doing public service. The proposed program of study could have become nevis 390 feeder free nation’s first modern liberal arts curriculum, although it was never implemented because Anglican mevis William Smith —who became nevis 390 feeder free first provostand other trustees strongly preferred the traditional curriculum.

Franklin nevis 390 feeder free a board of trustees from among the leading citizens of Philadelphia, the first such non-sectarian board in America. Http://replace.me/20324.txt the first meeting of the 24 members of the board of trustees on November 13,the issue of where nevis 390 feeder free locate the school was a prime concern.

Although a lot across Sixth Street from the old Pennsylvania State House later renamed and famously known since as ” Independence Hall “was offered without cost by James Loganits owner, the trustees realized that the building neis inwhich was still vacant, would be an even better site.

The original sponsors of the dormant building still owed considerable construction debts and asked Franklin’s group to assume their debts and, accordingly, their inactive trusts. On February 1,the new board took over vegas pro crack ita 64 bit download building and trusts of the old board.

Узнать больше здесь August 13, посмотреть больше, the “Academy of Philadelphia”, using the great nevis 390 feeder free at nevis 390 feeder free and Arch Streets, took in its first secondary students.

On June 16,the ” College of Philadelphia ” was chartered, paving the way for the addition of undergraduate instruction. The institution of higher learning was nnevis as the College of Philadelphia from to Innot trusting then-provost the Reverend William Smith ‘s “Loyalist” tendencies, the revolutionary State Legislature created a “University” which in the legislature changed name to University of the State of Pennsylvania [68] [67] The result was a schism, with Smith continuing to operate an attenuated version of the Nevis 390 feeder free of Philadelphia.

Inthe legislature issued a new charter, merging the two institutions into a new Приведенная ссылка of Pennsylvania with twelve men from each institution on the new board of trustees. Although Penn began operating as an academy or secondary school in and obtained its collegiate charter init initially designated as its founding date; this is the year that appears on the first iteration of the university seal. Sometime later in its early history, Penn began to consider as its founding date and this year was referenced for over a century, including at the centennial celebration in The University of Pennsylvania nevis 390 feeder free considers itself as the first university in the United States with both undergraduate and graduate studies.

Penn has two claims to being the first university in the United States, according to the former university archives director Mark Frazier Lloyd: 1 freee founding of the first medical school in America [72] made Penn the first institution to offer both “undergraduate” and professional education “the ‘de facto’ position”. The Academy of Nevis 390 feeder free, a secondary school for boys, began operations in in an unused church assembly hall building at 4th and Arch Streets which had sat unfinished and dormant for over a decade.

Upon receiving a collegiate charter inthe first classes for the College of Philadelphia were taught in the same building, in many cases to the same boys who had already graduated from The Academy of Philadelphia. When the British abandoned Philadelphia during the Revolutionary WarPenn’s then only academic building “College Hall” [76] served as temporary meeting site of the Second Continental Congress from July 2 to July 13, [77] as the British armed forces extensively damaged many parts of the city including the Pennsylvania State House now known as Independence Hallthe site in which the Second Continental Congress had convened on May 10, and had been forced to abandon on December 12, to escape capture by the British.

Inthe university moved to the unused Presidential Mansion at 9th and Market Streets, a building that both George Washington and John Adams had declined to occupy while Philadelphia was the temporary national capital. Among the classes given in at this building were those offered by Benjamin Rusha professor of chemistry, medical theory, and clinical practice who was also a signer of the United States Declaration of Independencemember of the Continental Nevis 390 feeder free[83] [84] and surgeon general of the Continental Army.

Classes were held in the mansion until when it was demolished. Architect William Strickland designed twin buildings on the same site, College Hall [86] and Medical Hall both —which formed the core of the Ninth Nevis 390 feeder free Campus until Penn’s move neivs West Philadelphia in the s. After being nevis 390 feeder free in downtown Nevis 390 feeder free for more than a century, the campus was moved across the Schuylkill River to property purchased from the Blockley Almshouse in West Philadelphia inwhere it has since remained in an area now known as Nevis 390 feeder free City.

In the s, roughly forty percent of Penn students needed lodging as they came from areas too far to commute including other colonies in the South or the West Indies. Inthe campus was expanded by the opening of the newly completed dormitory run by Ben Franklin’s collaborator on study of electricity using electrostatic machines and related technology and Penn Professor and http://replace.me/10406.txt master” Ebenezer Kinnersley.

Elmo by five founders and nevis 390 feeder free “initiates”, [98] Penn nevis 390 feeder free began to establish chapters of and live in tree rented or owned by fraternities. Since Penn only had limited housing near campus and since students especially the students at the medical school who came from all over the country, the students elected to fend for themselves rather than live in housing owned by Penn trustees and good number chose housing by pledging fre living in Penn’s first fraternities Delta PhiZeta PsiPhi Kappa Sigmaand Delta Psi.

When Penn moved West in to its “new” campus centered on the intersection ffee Woodland Avenue, 36th Street, and Locust Street so did the nevis 390 feeder free. Among the first fraternities to build near the new campus were Phi Delta Theta in and Psi Upsilon in Nevis 390 feeder free there were at least seventeen fraternities at the university.

From its founding until construction of the Quadrangle Dormitorieswhich started construction inthe student body did not live in university-owned housing as, with a significant exception in the 18th century see above content and Wikimedia image of the sketch of nevis 390 feeder free Penn owned dormitoryneis was none. Indeed, a significant portion of the undergraduate population commuted from Delaware Valley and a large number of students resided in the Philadelphia area.

For example, in the s when Penn’s medical school accounted for two-thirds to three-quarters http://replace.me/13483.txt the student body, over half of the population of the medical school was from the southern part of the United States. Penn had increasing need for housing in the last decade of 19th century and first decades of the twentieth century due to number of factors including its competition for students with peer institutions and active nevis 390 feeder free of foreign students.

With respect to the desire to compete with peer institutions to attract students from across the nation, such was aptly reported by George Henderson, President of the College Class of in his monograph he distributed to his classmates at their 20th reunionwhich charted not only Penn’s strong growth in acreage and number of buildings over the prior two decades but also the near-quadrupling in the size of the student body, nsvis was accommodated, in part, by building of the Men’s Dormitory, the Quadrangle.

And the new buildings? First of all there is need of greater dormitory room. Did you ever live in the “dorms? Several hundred men who live in the same big family have a feeling of common fellowship. Life in the “dorms” develops what our sociologists call a “Solidarity of Responsibility.

And this college spirit they never lose or forget. Some parents, living at a nevis 390 feeder free, do not like to send their sons to live in a general boarding house. But a dormitory, a University institution, fedder to them, and the boys come and live there. You 3990 scarcely believe it, but when College opened last fall not only were the dormitory rooms over subscribed, but there was a long list of anxious ones, ready to snap up the room of any unlucky fellow who might miss his examinations, fre be forced to spend another year at preparatory school grind.

So we nevis 390 feeder free the new dormitories, and although they are going up steadily, they might well go up faster. With respect to the active recruitment of foreign students, for example, Penn’s first director nevis 390 feeder free publicity translated a Penn recruiting brochure into Spanish and circulated approximately 10, copies throughout Latin America.

The success of such efforts were evident in fall of when Vice Provost Freee Fahs Smith who the following year would start a ten-year tenure as Penn’s provost nevis 390 feeder free welcomed to Feee students from 40 different nations at an annual party. Since it was difficult to house the international students due to the then socially acceptable and legally permissible racist housing regulations extant in Philadelphia and across the United States, ссылка на страницу fall ofThe Christian Association at The University of Pennsylvania hired as its first Foreign Mission Secretary, Reverend Alpheus Waldo Stevenson.

The International Students’ House provided ” It was also used for recreation and leisure, as lounges had radio, phonograph and television facilities and there were game and reception rooms.

The International Students’ House also provided for programs including forums, debates, lectures, panels and planned trips and outings as well fedder weekend activities such as dances, films and game nights. Also, for the next 3900 years, the International Students’ House would be nevis 390 feeder free by the Christian Association of the University of 309. The success of efforts to reach out to the international students’ was reported in when the official Penn publicity department reported that of the over 12, students at Penn who feedr from all neivs statesstudents came from at least 50 foreign countries and foreign territories, including India, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia, ” Byfirst-year students were required to live in the quadrangle unless they received official permission to live with their families or other relatives.

After World War II, Penn began a capital spending program to overhaul its campus, especially student housing. A large number of students migrating to universities under the GI Bill, and the resultant increase in Penn’s student population, highlighted that Penn had outgrown previous expansions, which nevis 390 feeder free during the Depression-era.

Nonetheless, in addition to a significant student population 930 the Delaware Valley, Penn attracted international students from at least 50 countries and from all 50 states as early as the second decade of the 20th century.

From tothere were 54 documented Rowbottom riotsa student tradition of rioting which included everything from car smashing to panty raids. InPenn students learned that the university was sponsoring research projects for the United States’ chemical and biological weapons program.

As a result of media coverage and pressure from animal rights activiststhe project was closed down. The school gained notoriety in for the water buffalo incident in which a student who told a group of mostly black female students to “shut up, you water buffalo” was charged with violating the university’s racial harassment policy. Insome feeded for the tenure of a University of Pennsylvania law school professor to be revoked after she said the country is “better off with best pc faster software free download Asians.

Penn’s educational innovations include the nation’s first medical school in ; the first university nevis 390 feeder free hospital in ; the Wharton Schoolthe world’s first collegiate business school, in ; the first American student union building, Houston Hallin ; [] the country’s second school of veterinary medicine; and the home of ENIACthe world’s first electronic, large-scale, general-purpose digital computer in Nevis 390 feeder free is also home to the oldest continuously functioning psychology department in North America and is where the American Medical Association nevis 390 feeder free founded.

Penn’s motto is based on a line from Horace ‘s III. From tothe motto read Sine Moribus Vanae. When it was pointed out that the motto could be translated as ‘Loose women without nevis 390 feeder free, the university quickly changed the motto to literae sine moribus nevis 390 feeder free’Letters without morals [are] useless’.

Inall elements of the seal were revised. As part of the redesign, it was decided that the new motto “mutilated” Horace, and it nevis 390 feeder free changed to its present wording, Leges Sine Moribus Vanae’Laws without morals [are] useless’.

The official seal of the Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania serves as the signature and symbol of authenticity on documents issued by the corporation. However, it was not until a meeting in that “a public Seal rree the College with a proper device and Motto” was requested to be engraved in silver. The outer ring of the current seal is inscribed with http://replace.me/16904.txt Pennsylvaniensis”, the Latin name of the University of Pennsylvania.

The inside contains seven stacked books on a desk with the titles of subjects of the trivium and a modified quadriviumcomponents of a classical education: Theolog[ia], Astronom[ia], Philosoph[ia], Mathemat[ica], Logica, Rhetorica and Grammatica. Between the books and the outer ring is the Latin motto of the university, “Leges Sine Moribus Vanae”.

Much of Penn’s architecture nevis 390 feeder free designed by the Philadelphia-based architecture firm Cope ffeeder Stewardson same architects who designed Princeton University and a large part of Washington University in St.

Louis known for having combined the Gothic architecture of the University of Oxford and University of Cambridge with the local landscape to establish the Collegiate Gothic style. The present core campus covers over acres ha in a contiguous area of West Philadelphia’s University City section, whereas the older heart of the campus comprises the University of Pennsylvania Campus Historic District. All of Penn’s schools and most of its research institutes are located on this campus. The surrounding neighborhood includes several restaurants, bars, a large upscale grocery store, and movie theater on the western перейти на страницу of campus.

The renowned nevis 390 feeder free research center Wistar Institute is also located on campus.

This is a list of defunct airlines of Canada. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This article is about defunct airlines of Canada. For current airlines of Canada, see List of airlines of Canada. Air Charter Systems. Air Schefferville. Trinity Helicopters. Western Express Airlines. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Defunct airlines of Canada.

Retrieved Airport Insider. Retrieved 3 January Canada’s Aviation Hall of Fame. Retrieved 3 October Retrieved 7 January Airline History. Retrieved 14 January Airline History Insider. Retrieved 25 March Airlines History. Retrieved 28 December Retrieved 10 January Retrieved 15 January Retrieved 27 September Archived from the original on Retrieved 3 May Retrieved 12 January Retrieved 12 November Retrieved 11 January Retrieved 16 January Retrieved 17 January Retrieved 25 September Plane Logger.

Retrieved 18 January Retrieved 14 October Retrieved 4 May Retrieved 26 March Retrieved 20 January Retrieved 6 January Air Lines”. Retrieved 21 January Retrieved 4 January Retrieved 9 April Retrieved 4 October Retrieved 22 January Retrieved 5 January Retrieved 11 May Retrieved 28 January Canada Business Directory.

Retrieved 6 November Retrieved 8 November Airport Indiser. Retrieved 5 May Retrieved 6 May Retrieved 8 January Retrieved 7 May Retrieved 29 January Retrieved 13 October Constellation Survivor. Retrieved 8 May Retrieved 19 November Retrieved 31 January Retrieved 10 May Retrieved 7 February Retrieved 2 February ABPic Air-Britain. Retrieved 1 October Bureau of Aircraft Accident Archives. Retrieved 13 April Retrieved 3 February Retrieved 8 February Retrieved 1 August Retrieved 23 April Retrieved 18 April Beaver Tails.

Aviation Safety. Retrieved 16 April Retrieved 13 January Retrieved 24 April Retrieved 2 August Retrieved 24 September Retrieved 26 April Retrieved 29 September Retrieved 27 April Retrieved 29 December Canadian Bushplane Heritage Centre. Bomber Command Museum of Canada.

Retrieved 28 April Retrieved 30 September Retrieved 19 October Retrieved 13 May Retrieved 9 January Retrieved 5 October Retrieved 6 October Retrieved 8 October Retrieved 9 October Retrieved 30 April Retrieved 11 October Retrieved 12 October

The economy of Croatia is a developing high-income service based economy with the tertiary sector accounting for 60% of total gross domestic product (GDP). Croatia joined the World Trade Organization in , NATO in and became a member of the European Union on 1 July The Croatian economy was badly affected by the financial crisis which, together with . Feb 08,  · IDM H&S committee meetings for will be held via Microsoft Teams on the following Tuesdays at 12hh 8 February ; 31 May ; 2 August Adjunct membership is for researchers employed by other institutions who collaborate with IDM Members to the extent that some of their own staff and/or postgraduate students may work within the IDM; for 3-year terms, which are renewable. Aug 06,  · Derniers chiffres du Coronavirus issus du CSSE 07/08/ (dimanche 7 août ). Au niveau mondial le nombre total de cas est de , le nombre de guérisons est de 0, le nombre de décès est de 6 Le taux de mortalité est de 1,10%, le taux de guérison est de 0,00% et le taux de personnes encore malade est de 98,90% Pour consulter .

Decentralization came in and spurred growth of several sectors including the prosperous tourist industry. In the mids, Yugoslavia lifted emigration restrictions and the number of emigrants increased rapidly. In , workers from Croatia were employed abroad, mostly in West Germany. This, coupled with austerity programs and hyperinflation in the s, led to discontent in both Croatia and Slovenia which eventually fuelled political movements calling for independence. In the late s and early s, with the collapse of socialism and the beginning of economic transition , Croatia faced considerable economic problems stemming from: [75].

At the time Croatia gained independence, its economy and the whole Yugoslavian economy was in the middle of recession. Privatization under the new government had barely begun when war broke out in As a result of the Croatian War of Independence , infrastructure sustained massive damage in the period —92, especially the revenue-rich tourism industry. Privatization in Croatia and transformation from a planned economy to a market economy was thus slow and unsteady, largely as a result of public mistrust when many state-owned companies were sold to politically well-connected at below-market prices.

With the end of the war, Croatia’s economy recovered moderately, but corruption, cronyism, and a general lack of transparency stymied economic reforms and foreign investment. The early s were characterized by high inflation rates. In the Croatian dinar was introduced as a transitional currency, but inflation continued to accelerate. The anti-inflationary stabilization steps in decreased retail price inflation from a monthly rate of In Croatia introduced the kuna as its currency.

As a result of the macro-stabilization programs, the negative growth of GDP during the early s stopped and turned into a positive trend. Post-war reconstruction activity provided another impetus to growth. Consumer spending and private sector investments, both of which were postponed during the war, contributed to the growth in — In March Croatia agreed with the Paris Club of creditor governments and took In July an agreement was reached with the London Club of commercial creditors, when Croatia took In around 60 percent of Croatia’s external debt was inherited from former Yugoslavia.

At the beginning of value-added tax was introduced. The central government budget was in surplus in that year, most of which was used to repay foreign debt. However, the consumer boom was disrupted in mid , as a result of the bank crisis when 14 banks went bankrupt. After several years of successful macroeconomic stabilization policies, low inflation and a stable currency, economists warned that the lack of fiscal changes and the expanding role of the state in the economy caused the decline in the late s and were preventing sustainable economic growth.

The country emerged from the recession in the 4th quarter of and growth picked up in Economic growth in the s was stimulated by a credit boom led by newly privatized banks, capital investment, especially in road construction, a rebound in tourism and credit-driven consumer spending. Inflation remained tame and the currency, the kuna, stable.

In Croatia generated 5, billion kunas in total income from the shipbuilding sector, which employed 13, people. Unemployment reached its peak in late , but has since been steadily declining. In , the nation’s economy would officially recover to the amount of GDP it had in Unemployment continued falling, powered by growing industrial production and rising GDP, rather than only seasonal changes from tourism.

Unemployment reached an all-time low in when the annual average rate was 8. Most economic indicators remained positive in this period except for the external debt as Croatian firms focused more on empowering the economy by taking loans from foreign resources. The Croatian National Bank had to take steps to curb further growth of indebtedness of local banks with foreign banks. Economic growth has been hurt by the global financial crisis. However, in , the crisis gained momentum and the decline in GDP growth, at a slower pace, continued during In the GDP stagnated as the growth rate was zero.

Croatia joined the European Union on 1 July as the 28th member state. The Croatian economy is heavily interdependent on other principal economies of Europe, and any negative trends in these larger EU economies also have a negative impact on Croatia. Italy, Germany and Slovenia are Croatia’s most important trade partners.

The annual average unemployment rate in was In external debt rose by 2. During the Croatian economy started with slow but upward economic growth, which continued during and conclusive at the end of the year seasonally adjusted was recorded at 3. In the first quarter of , Croatian GDP rose by 0.

Economic activity also plunged in Q3 when GDP slid by an additional Preliminary data point to tourism-related expenditure already exceeding levels, which has been supportive of both employment and consumption. At the same time, imports rose The coverage of imports by exports for the first nine months is Specifically, on the EU market, only a lower export result is recorded in relations with Sweden , Belgium and Luxembourg.

Italy is again the main market for Croatian products, followed by Germany and Slovenia. Apart from the high contribution of crude oil that Ina sends to Hungary to the Mol refinery for processing, the export of artificial fertilizers from Petrokemija also has a significant contribution to growth.

For , the Commission revised downwards its projection for Croatia’s economic growth to 5. Commission again confirmed that the volume of Croatia’s GDP should reach its level during , while in the GDP will grow by 3. The Commission warned that the key downside risks stem from Croatia’s relatively low vaccination rates , which could lead to stricter containment measures, and continued delays of the earthquake-related reconstruction.

On the upside, potential entry into the Schengen area and euro adoption towards the end of the forecast period could benefit investment and trade. Maraska liqueur factory in Zadar. Tourism is a notable source of income during the summer and a major industry in Croatia. Its positive effects are felt throughout the economy of Croatia in terms of increased business volume observed in retail business, processing industry orders and summer seasonal employment.

The industry is considered an export business, because it significantly reduces the country’s external trade imbalance. Length of a tourist stay in Croatia averages 4. The bulk of the tourist industry is concentrated along the Adriatic Sea coast. Opatija was the first holiday resort since the middle of the 19th century. By the s, it became one of the most significant European health resorts. Inland areas offer mountain resorts, agrotourism and spas. Zagreb is also a significant tourist destination, rivalling major coastal cities and resorts.

Croatia has unpolluted marine areas reflected through numerous nature reserves and 99 Blue Flag beaches and 28 Blue Flag marinas. It was also the first European country to develop commercial naturist resorts. Croatian agricultural sector subsists from exports of blue water fish , which in recent years experienced a tremendous surge in demand, mainly from Japan and South Korea.

Croatia is a notable producer of organic foods and much of it is exported to the European Union. Croatian wines , olive oil and lavender are particularly sought after. In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products, like apple 93 thousand tons , triticale 62 thousand tons and olive 28 thousand tons.

The highlight of Croatia’s recent infrastructure developments is its rapidly developed motorway network , largely built in the late s and especially in the s.

By January , Croatia had completed more than 1, kilometres miles of motorways, connecting Zagreb to most other regions and following various European routes and four Pan-European corridors.

The high quality and safety levels of the Croatian motorway network were tested and confirmed by several EuroTAP and EuroTest programs. Croatia has an extensive rail network spanning 2, kilometres 1, miles , including kilometres miles of electrified railways and kilometres miles of double track railways.

The busiest cargo seaport in Croatia is the Port of Rijeka and the busiest passenger ports are Split and Zadar. There are kilometres miles of crude oil pipelines in Croatia, connecting the Port of Rijeka oil terminal with refineries in Rijeka and Sisak, as well as several transhipment terminals.

The system has a capacity of 20 million tonnes per year. In , In , net total electrical power production in Croatia reached 12, GWh and Croatia imported Electricity: []. Electricity — production by source: []. Crude oil: []. Natural gas: [].

Overall Budget: [] Revenues:. Expenditure by ministries for []. The following table shows the main economic indicators for the period — according to the Croatian National Bank. Distribution of family income — Gini index : Agricultural products: maize , wheat , sugar beet , milk , barley , soybeans , potatoes , pork , grapes , sunflower seed. Industries: chemicals and plastics , machine tools , fabricated metal, electronics , pig iron and rolled steel products, aluminum , paper , wood products , construction materials , textiles , shipbuilding , petroleum and petroleum refining , food and beverages, tourism.

Imports — commodities: crude petroleum , cars, refined petroleum, packaged medicines, electricity Media related to Economy of Croatia at Wikimedia Commons. World portal. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. National economy. Fiscal year. Private consumption: Inflation CPI. Population below poverty line. Gini coefficient. Human Development Index.

Average net salary. Ease-of-doing-business rank. FDI stock. Current account. Gross external debt. Public debt. Budget balance. HRK Credit rating. All values, unless otherwise stated, are in US dollars. Main article: Industry of Croatia. Asphalt plant in Ivanovec. Main article: Tourism in Croatia. Cruise ship in Dubrovnik. Mark’s Church in Zagreb. Plantations in the fertile Neretva valley. Main article: Transport in Croatia. Main article: Energy in Croatia. See also: List of banks in Croatia.

International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 29 September World Bank. Retrieved 13 July Retrieved 27 April European Commission. Retrieved 21 March Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 4 February European Commission — European Commission. ISSN Retrieved 25 October Retrieved 11 December Retrieved 22 May Retrieved 1 November Retrieved 25 May Retrieved 4 October Retrieved 26 December Croatian Bureau of Statistics.

Retrieved 16 April Retrieved 13 January Retrieved 24 April Retrieved 2 August Retrieved 24 September Retrieved 26 April Retrieved 29 September Retrieved 27 April Retrieved 29 December Canadian Bushplane Heritage Centre.

Bomber Command Museum of Canada. Retrieved 28 April Retrieved 30 September Retrieved 19 October Retrieved 13 May Retrieved 9 January Retrieved 5 October Retrieved 6 October Retrieved 8 October Retrieved 9 October Retrieved 30 April Retrieved 11 October Retrieved 12 October Retrieved 1 January Retrieved 15 October Retrieved 17 October Retrieved 18 October Retrieved 24 May Retrieved 20 October Retrieved 21 October Retrieved 22 October Retrieved 26 January Plane Spotters.

Retrieved 23 October Retrieved 25 May The Sarnia Journal. Retrieved 26 May Retrieved 24 October Retrieved 30 December Retrieved 5 November Retrieved 4 November Andrews Airways”. Felicien Air Services”.

Air History. Retrieved 27 May Retrieved 9 November Retrieved 10 November Out There. Retrieved 11 November Retrieved 14 November Retrieved 15 November Retrieved 16 November DHC-3 Otter Archive. Retrieved 17 November Doug Gents.

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Categories : Defunct airlines of Canada Lists of defunct airlines Canada transport-related lists Lists of companies of Canada. Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata.

Namespaces Article Talk. Views Read Edit View history. Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file. Download as PDF Printable version. Wikimedia Commons. Add links. Parry Sound Harbour. Abbotsford Air Services. Adastra Aviation. Advance Air Charters. Aerial Recon Surveys.

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Yellowknife Water Aerodrome. Air Dorval. Became a subsidiary of Quebecair in Toronto Pearson. Air Integra. Air Link Express. Air Madeleine. Air Manan. Air Manitoba. Winnipeg Lyncrest. Air Maritime.

Sainte-Anne-du-Lac Water Aerodrome. Fort McMurray. Air Muskoka. Air Niagara. Catharines Niagara. Air Niagara Express. Air Nord-Ouest. Air Ottawa. Air Park Aviation. Air Sandy. Operated Piper Navajo [40].

Merged with Athabaska Airways to form Transwest Air [41]. Air Wemindji. Air West. Nanaimo Harbour. Air Windsor. Airco Charters. Edmonton City Centre. Airspeed Aviation. Airwave Transport. Airwest Airlines. Aklavik Flying Services. Alberta Northern Airlines. Alert Bay Air Services. Algoma Airways. All West Freight. Alma Air Services. Alpenglow Aviation.

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Bella Coola Air. Big River Air. Big Salmon Air. BMR Aviation. Bradley Air Services. British Columbia Air Lines. British Columbia Airways. Kingston Rogers. Charters and Medevac []. Brooker-Wheaton Aviation. Buffalo Narrows Airways. Bullock Helicopters. Burrard Air. Business Flights. Bute Air. Buzzard Air. Calumet Air Service. Campbell Air. Canada Cargo. Canada Trans-Continental Airways.

Canada West Air. Canadian Airlines. Canadian Colonial Airways. Montreal Saint-Hubert. Canadian Metro Airlines. Canadian Pacific Air Lines. Canadian Regional Airlines. Canadian Transcontinental Airways. Canadian Western Airlines. CanAir Cargo. Capital Air Surveys. Capreol and Austin Air Services. Cargaard Aviation. Thunder Bay. Carter Air Services. Cassidair Services. Centennial Airlines. Central Air Transport. Central Airways. Central British Columbia Airlines.

Central Canada Air Lines. Central Northern Airways. Chaparal Charters. Prince Albert. Chilcotin Cariboo Aviation. Chimo Air Service.

Citizen Airways. Coast Western Airlines. Coastal Cargo. Colibri Aviation. Collingwood Air. Colonial Airlines. Commander Air Charter. Charter operator []. Commando Air Transport. Conifair Aviation. Connolly-Dawson Airways. Corporate Express. Cougar Air. CoVal Air. Cree Airways. Operated Cessna []. Curtiss-Reid Flying Service. Cypress Airlines. Cypress Jetprop Charter. Dominion Aerial Exploration Company. Roberval Water Aerodrome.

Dominion Pegasus Helicopters. Dorval Air Transport. Eagle Aviation. Silver Falls Water Aerodrome. Earlton Airways. Eastern Canada Air Lines. Eastern Flying Service. Eastern Provincial Airways. Eldorado Aviation. Eldorado Radium Silver Express. Edmonton City Centre Port Radium. Enterprise Air. Express Air. Fairchild Aerial Surveys. VII []. Fecteau Transport Aerien. Ottawa Yellowknife Iqaluit.

First Nations Transportation. Fugro Aviation Canada. Futura Airlines. Gagnon Air Service. Gander Aviation. Garrison Aviation. Gateway Aviation. Georgian Express. Gilbert’s Flying Service. Gillies Flying Service. Ginger Coote Airways. Edmonton St. GoAir Citylink.

Gogal Air Services. Snow Lake Water Aerodrome. Gold Belt Air Transport. Pickle Lake Water Aerodrome. Golden Voyagairs. Golfe Air Quebec. Gordon Airways. Grand Island Aviation. Gray Rocks Air Service. Great Lakes Air Service. Great Lakes Airlines. Sarnia Chris Hadfield.

Great Northern Airways. Great Western Airways. Greater Toronto Airways. Green Airways. Gulf Air Aviation. Hanna Air. Harrison Airways. Hollinger Ungava Transport. Hooker Air Service. Horne Air. Hornepayne Water Aerodrome.

Hudson Bay Air Transport. Ilford-Riverton Airways. Innu Mikun Airlines. Inter City Airways. International Jet Air. Interprovincial Airlines. Island Valley Airways. Island Westair. Jackson Air Services. Johanneson Flying Services. Stevenson Aerodrome. Juan Air. Kamloops Air Service. Kasper Aviation. Keir Air Transport. Kelowna Flightcraft Air Charter. Kenting Atlas Aviation. Winnipeg St. Keywinds Air. Little Grand Rapids.

Adjunct membership is for researchers employed by other institutions who collaborate with IDM Members to the extent that some of their own staff and/or postgraduate students may work within the IDM; for 3-year terms, which are renewable. Official City of Calgary local government Twitter account. Keep up with City news, services, programs, events and more. Not monitored 24/7. Feeder airline for Canadian Pacific Airlines and later Canadian Airlines International: Air Atonabee: OU: OUL: CITY EXPRESS: Peterborough: – Renamed City Express Operated Saunders ST, Air Baffin: BFF AIR BAFFIN Iqaluit: – Renamed Air Nunavut: Air BC: ZX ABL AIRCOACH Vancouver: – To Air Canada Connector. The University of Pennsylvania (Penn or UPenn) is a private Ivy League research university in Philadelphia, replace.meished in , it is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and among the highest ranked universities in the world. It is also one of nine colonial colleges chartered before the U.S. Declaration of Independence. The economy of Croatia is a developing high-income service based economy with the tertiary sector accounting for 60% of total gross domestic product (GDP). Croatia joined the World Trade Organization in , NATO in and became a member of the European Union on 1 July The Croatian economy was badly affected by the financial crisis which, together with .

Retrieved 16 July Archived from the original on 11 January Retrieved 10 January Retrieved 21 January Retrieved 26 November Retrieved 17 November Balkan Green Energy News.

Automotive News Europe. Retrieved 8 April Invest Croatia. N1 in Croatian. Retrieved 3 April Croatia: a nation forged in war 2nd ed. ISBN Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States Routledge, Archived from the original PDF on 9 July Archived from the original on 9 February The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on 28 September Bloomberg News. European Commission – European Commission.

Retrieved 28 January Novi list. SWI swissinfo. Retrieved 6 February Vjesnik in Croatian. Archived from the original on 14 June Retrieved 20 October T-Hrvatski Telekom. Retrieved 21 October Opatija Tourist Board.

Archived from the original on 29 April Croatian National Tourist Board. Blue Flag. Foundation for Environmental Education. Retrieved 4 April October Archived from the original PDF on 10 September Retrieved 23 April Archived from the original on 24 February Retrieved 26 March University of Rijeka , Faculty of Maritime Studies. Retrieved 14 October August Retrieved 3 November Hrvatske ceste.

Archived from the original PDF on 21 July Retrieved 1 May Archived from the original on 30 April Retrieved 3 January Archived from the original on 15 January Retrieved 26 October Ministry of the Sea, Transport and Infrastructure Croatia.

Archived from the original on 3 July Retrieved 10 October Federal Aviation Administration. Archived from the original on 26 June Retrieved 27 January Archived from the original on 5 August Retrieved 13 October Archived from the original on 16 December Retrieved 24 August Agencija za obalni linijski pomorski promet.

Archived from the original on 15 July Retrieved 27 August Retrieved 10 September Jadranski naftovod. Retrieved 8 October Retrieved 15 January Retrieved 27 September Archived from the original on Retrieved 3 May Retrieved 12 January Retrieved 12 November Retrieved 11 January Retrieved 16 January Retrieved 17 January Retrieved 25 September Plane Logger.

Retrieved 18 January Retrieved 14 October Retrieved 4 May Retrieved 26 March Retrieved 20 January Retrieved 6 January Air Lines”. Retrieved 21 January Retrieved 4 January Retrieved 9 April Retrieved 4 October Retrieved 22 January Retrieved 5 January Retrieved 11 May Retrieved 28 January Canada Business Directory.

Retrieved 6 November Retrieved 8 November Airport Indiser. Retrieved 5 May Retrieved 6 May Retrieved 8 January Retrieved 7 May Retrieved 29 January Retrieved 13 October Constellation Survivor.

Retrieved 8 May Retrieved 19 November Retrieved 31 January Retrieved 10 May Retrieved 7 February Retrieved 2 February ABPic Air-Britain. Retrieved 1 October Bureau of Aircraft Accident Archives. Retrieved 13 April Retrieved 3 February Retrieved 8 February Retrieved 1 August Retrieved 23 April Retrieved 18 April Beaver Tails. Aviation Safety. Retrieved 16 April Retrieved 13 January Retrieved 24 April Retrieved 2 August Retrieved 24 September Retrieved 26 April Retrieved 29 September Retrieved 27 April Retrieved 29 December Canadian Bushplane Heritage Centre.

Bomber Command Museum of Canada. Retrieved 28 April Retrieved 30 September Retrieved 19 October Retrieved 13 May Retrieved 9 January Retrieved 5 October Retrieved 6 October Retrieved 8 October Retrieved 9 October Retrieved 30 April Retrieved 11 October Retrieved 12 October Retrieved 1 January Retrieved 15 October Retrieved 17 October Retrieved 18 October Retrieved 24 May Retrieved 20 October Retrieved 21 October Retrieved 22 October Retrieved 26 January Plane Spotters.

Retrieved 23 October Retrieved 25 May The Sarnia Journal. Retrieved 26 May Retrieved 24 October Retrieved 30 December Retrieved 5 November Retrieved 4 November Andrews Airways”. Felicien Air Services”.

Air History. Retrieved 27 May Retrieved 9 November Retrieved 10 November Out There. Retrieved 11 November Retrieved 14 November Retrieved 15 November Retrieved 16 November DHC-3 Otter Archive. Retrieved 17 November Doug Gents. Retrieved 18 November Portals : Canada Companies Aviation. Lists of airlines. Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania. Haiti Honduras Hong Kong Hungary.

Jamaica Japan Jersey Jordan. Romania Russia Rwanda. Zambia Zimbabwe. List of airline holding companies List of airline mergers and acquisitions List of airlines by foundation date List of charter airlines List of defunct airlines List of government-owned airlines List of low-cost airlines List of passenger airlines List of regional airlines. Lists of defunct airlines. List of airline holding companies List of airline mergers and acquisitions List of airlines List of airlines by foundation date List of charter airlines List of low-cost airlines List of passenger airlines List of regional airlines.

Defunct airlines of Canada. See also: List of airlines of Canada. Categories : Defunct airlines of Canada Lists of defunct airlines Canada transport-related lists Lists of companies of Canada.

Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata. Namespaces Article Talk. Views Read Edit View history. Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file. Download as PDF Printable version. Wikimedia Commons. Add links. Parry Sound Harbour. Abbotsford Air Services. Adastra Aviation. Advance Air Charters. Aerial Recon Surveys. Aero Activities Limited.

Barker Field Maple Airport. Aero Bee Airlines. Aero Link. Aero Trades Western. Winnipeg Richardson. Aerokon Aviation. Air Alliance. Air Alma. Air Amos. Air Brazeau. Renamed Quebec Aviation. Air Caledonia. Air Canada Regional. Air Caravane. Air Cardinal. Air Club International. Air Columbus Vacations. The cross section of a tunnel face was a foot-wide 4. Progress on the tunnel sped up to over 1. They used nitroglycerin to deepen the summit tunnel to the required foot 4.

Nearly all other tunnels were worked on both tunnel faces and met in the middle. Depending on the material the tunnels penetrated, they were left unlined or lined with brick, rock walls or timber and post. Some tunnels were designed to bend in the middle to align with the track bed curvature. Despite this potential complication, nearly all the different tunnel center lines met within 2 inches 5. The detailed survey work that made these tunnel digs as precise as required was nearly all done by the Canadian-born and -trained Lewis Clement, the CPRR’s Chief Assistant Engineer and Superintendent of Track, and his assistants.

Hills or ridges in front of the railroad road bed would have to have a flat-bottomed, V-shaped “cut” made to get the railroad through the ridge or hill. The type of material determined the slope of the V and how much material would have to be removed.

Ideally, these cuts would be matched with valley fills that could use the dug out material to bring the road bed up to grade— cut and fill construction.

In the s there was no heavy equipment that could be used to make these cuts or haul it away to make the fills. To blast a V-shaped cut out, they had to drill several holes up to 20 feet 6. Since the Central Pacific was in a hurry, they were profligate users of black powder to blast their way through the hills. The only disadvantage came when a nearby valley needed fill to get across it.

The explosive technique often blew most of the potential fill material down the hillside, making it unavailable for fill. The existing railroad made transporting and putting material in valleys much easier—load it on railway dump cars, haul where needed and dump it over the side of the trestle.

The route down the eastern Sierras was done on the south side of Donner Lake with a series of switchbacks carved into the mountain. The Truckee River, which drains Lake Tahoe , had already found and scoured out the best route across the Carson Range of mountains east of the Sierras. The route down the rugged Truckee River Canyon, including required bridges, was done ahead of the main summit tunnel completion. To expedite the building of the railroad through the Truckee River canyon, the Central Pacific hauled two small locomotives, railcars , rails and other material on wagons and sleighs to what is now Truckee, California and worked the winter of —68 on their way down Truckee canyon ahead of the tracks being completed to Truckee.

In Truckee canyon, five Howe truss bridges had to be built. This gave them a head start on getting to the “easy” miles across Nevada. With the advent of more efficient oil fired steam and later diesel electric power to drive plows, flangers, spreaders, and rotary snow plows, most of the wooden snowsheds have long since been removed as obsolete. Tunnels 1—5 and Tunnel 13 of the original s tunnels on Track 1 of the Sierra grade remain in use today, while additional new tunnels were later driven when the grade was double tracked over the first quarter of the twentieth century.

Judah between Soda Springs and Eder, which was opened in when the summit section of the grade was double tracked. This routing change was made because the Track 2 and Tunnel 41 Summit crossing is far easier and less expensive to maintain and keep open in the harsh Sierra winters. On June 18, , the Central Pacific reached Reno, Nevada , after completing miles km of railroad up and over the Sierras from Sacramento, California.

By then the railroad had already been prebuilt down the Truckee River on the much flatter land from Reno to Wadsworth, Nevada , where they bridged the Truckee for the last time. From there, they struggled across a forty mile desert to the end of the Humboldt river at the Humboldt Sink. One of the most troublesome problems found on this route along the Humboldt was at Palisade Canyon near Carlin, Nevada , where for 12 miles 19 km the line had to be built between the river and basalt cliffs.

Water for the steam locomotives was provided by wells, springs, or pipelines to nearby water sources. Water was often pumped into the water tanks with windmills. Train fuel and water cranes for the early trains with steam locomotives may have been as often as every 10 miles 16 km.

On one memorable occasion, not far from Promontory, the Central Pacific crews organized an army of workers and five train loads of construction material, and laid 10 miles 16 km of track on a prepared rail bed in one day—-a record that still stands today.

The Central Pacific and Union Pacific raced to get as much track laid as possible, and the Central Pacific laid about miles km of track from Reno to Promontory Summit in the one year before the Last Spike was driven on May 10, Central Pacific had 1, freight cars available by May , with more under construction in their Sacramento yard. Major repairs and maintenance on the Central Pacific rolling stock was done in their Sacramento maintenance yard.

Near the end of , Central Pacific had locomotives, of which 2 had two drivers drive wheels , had four drivers, and 50 had six drivers. The steam locomotives had been purchased in the eastern states and shipped to California by sea. Thirty-six additional locomotives were built and coming west, and twenty-eight more were under construction. There was a shortage of passenger cars and more had to be ordered. Subsequent to the railhead’s meeting at Promontory Summit, Utah Territory, the San Joaquin River Bridge at Mossdale Crossing near present-day Lathrop, California was completed on September 8, with the first through freight train carrying freight from the East Coast leaving Sacramento and crossing the bridge to arrive that evening at the Alameda Wharf on San Francisco Bay.

Train ferries transferred some railroad cars to and from the Oakland wharves and tracks to wharves and tracks in San Francisco. Before the CPRR was completed, developers were building other feeder railroads like the Virginia and Truckee Railroad to the Comstock Lode diggings in Virginia City, Nevada , and several different extensions in California and Nevada to reach other cities there.

Some of their main cargo was the thousands of cords 3. This new railroad connected to the Central Pacific near Reno , and went through Carson City , the new capital of Nevada. After the transcontinental railroads were completed, many other railroads were built to connect up to other population centers in Utah, Wyoming, Kansas, Colorado, Oregon, Washington territories, etc.

In , the Kansas Pacific Railway started building the Hannibal Bridge , a swing bridge across the Missouri River between Kansas City, Missouri and Kansas City, Kansas which connected railroads on both sides of the Missouri while still allowing passage of paddle steamers on the river.

After completion, this became another major east—west railroad. To speed completion of the Kansas Pacific Railroad to Denver, construction started east from Denver in March to meet the railroad coming west from Kansas city. Denver was now firmly on track to becoming the largest city and the future capital of Colorado. The original transcontinental railroad route did not pass through the two biggest cities in the so-called Great American Desert — Denver, Colorado , and Salt Lake City, Utah.

Feeder railroad lines were soon built to service these two and other cities and states along the route. Modern-day Interstate 80 roughly follows the path of the railroad from Sacramento across modern day California, Nevada, Wyoming and Nebraska, with a few exceptions.

Most significantly, the two routes are different between Wells, Nevada and Echo, Utah. The railroad was originally routed along the north shore, and later with the Lucin Cutoff directly across the center of the Great Salt Lake, passing through the city of Ogden instead of Salt Lake City. The railroad crosses the Wasatch Mountains via a much gentler grade through Weber Canyon.

Most of the other deviations are in mountainous areas where interstate highways allow for grades up to six-percent grades, which allows them to go many places the railroads had to go around, since their goal was to hold their grades to less than two percent.

Most of the capital investment needed to build the railroad was generated by selling government-guaranteed bonds granted per mile of completed track to interested investors. The Federal donation of right-of-way saved money and time as it did not have to be purchased from others. The financial incentives and bonds would hopefully cover most of the initial capital investment needed to build the railroad. The bonds would be paid back by the sale of government-granted land, as well as prospective passenger and freight income.

Most of the engineers and surveyors who figured out how and where to build the railroad on the Union Pacific were engineering college trained. Many of Union Pacific engineers and surveyors were Union Army veterans including two generals who had learned their railroad trade keeping the trains running and tracks maintained during the U.

Civil War. After securing the finances and selecting the engineering team, the next step was to hire the key personnel and prospective supervisors. Nearly all key workers and supervisors were hired because they had previous railroad on-the-job training, knew what needed to be done and how to direct workers to get it done.

After the key personnel were hired, the semi-skilled jobs could be filled if there was available labor. The engineering team’s main job was to tell the workers where to go, what to do, how to do it, and provide the construction material they would need to get it done. Survey teams were put out to produce detailed contour maps of the options on the different routes. The engineering team looked at the available surveys and chose what was the “best” route. Survey teams under the direction of the engineers closely led the work crews and marked where and by how much hills would have to be cut and depressions filled or bridged.

Coordinators made sure that construction and other supplies were provided when and where needed, and additional supplies were ordered as the railroad construction consumed the supplies.

Specialized bridging, explosive and tunneling teams were assigned to their specialized jobs. Some jobs like explosive work, tunneling, bridging, heavy cuts or fills were known to take longer than others, so the specialized teams were sent out ahead by wagon trains with the supplies and men to get these jobs done by the time the regular track-laying crews arrived.

Finance officers made sure the supplies were paid for and men paid for their work. An army of men had to be coordinated and a seemingly never-ending chain of supplies had to be provided. The Central Pacific road crew set a track-laying record by laying 10 mi 16 km of track in a single day, commemorating the event with a signpost beside the track for passing trains to see. In addition to the track-laying crews, other crews were busy setting up stations with provisions for loading fuel, water and often also mail, passengers and freight.

Personnel had to be hired to run these stations. Maintenance depots had to be built to keep all of the equipment repaired and operational. Telegraph operators had to be hired to man each station to keep track of where the trains were so that trains could run in each direction on the available single track without interference or accidents. Sidings had to be built to allow trains to pass. Provision had to be made to store and continually pay for coal or wood needed to run the steam locomotives.

Water towers had to be built for refilling the water tanks on the engines, and provision made to keep them full. The majority of the Union Pacific track across the Nebraska and Wyoming territories was built by veterans of the Union and Confederate armies, as well as many recent immigrants.

Brigham Young , President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints , landed contracts with the Union Pacific that offered jobs for around 2, members of the church with the hope that the railroad would support commerce in Utah.

Church members built most of the road through Utah. The Union Pacific train carrying him to the final spike ceremony was held up by a strike by unpaid workers in Piedmont, Wyoming until he paid them for their work.

Representatives of Brigham Young had less success, and failed in court to force him to honor the contract. The manual labor to build the Central Pacific’s roadbed, bridges and tunnels was done primarily by many thousands of emigrant workers from China under the direction of skilled non-Chinese supervisors. The Chinese were commonly referred to at the time as ” Celestials ” and China as the “Celestial Kingdom. The construction work involved an immense amount of manual labor.

Initially, Central Pacific had a hard time hiring and keeping unskilled workers on its line, as many would leave for the prospect of far more lucrative gold or silver mining options elsewhere. Despite the concerns expressed by Charles Crocker , one of the “big four” and a general contractor, that the Chinese were too small in stature [87] and lacking previous experience with railroad work, they decided to try them anyway. Most of these Chinese workers were represented by a Chinese “boss” who translated, collected salaries for his crew, kept discipline and relayed orders from an American general supervisor.

Most Chinese workers spoke only rudimentary or no English, and the supervisors typically only learned rudimentary Chinese. Many more workers were imported from the Guangdong Province of China, which at the time, beside great poverty, suffered from the violence of the Taiping Rebellion. Most Chinese workers were planning on returning with their newfound “wealth” when the work was completed. Most of the men received between one and three dollars per day, the same as unskilled white workers; but the workers imported directly from China sometimes received less.

A snapshot of workers in late showed about 3, Chinese and 1, white workers employed on the railroad. Nearly all of the white workers were in supervisory or skilled craft positions and made more money than the Chinese. Once the Central Pacific was out of the Sierras and the Carson Range, progress sped up considerably as the railroad bed could be built over nearly flat ground.

In those days, the Central Pacific once did a section of 10 miles 16 km of track in one day as a “demonstration” of what they could do on flat ground like most of the Union Pacific had in Wyoming and Nebraska.

The track laying was divided up into various parts. In advance of the track layers, surveyors consulting with engineers determined where the track would go. Workers then built and prepared the roadbed, dug or blasted through hills, filled in washes, built trestles, bridges or culverts across streams or valleys, made tunnels if needed, and laid the ties.

The actual track-laying gang would then lay rails on the previously laid ties positioned on the roadbed, drive the spikes, and bolt the fishplate bars to each rail.

At the same time, another gang would distribute telegraph poles and wire along the grade, while the cooks prepared dinner and the clerks busied themselves with accounts, records, using the telegraph line to relay requests for more materials and supplies or communicate with supervisors. Usually the workers lived in camps built near their work site. Supplies were ordered by the engineers and hauled by rail, possibly then to be loaded on wagons if they were needed ahead of the railhead.

Camps were moved when the railhead moved a significant distance. Later, as the railroad started moving long distances every few days, some railroad cars had bunkhouses built in them that moved with the workers—the Union Pacific had used this technique since Carts pulled by mules, and horses were about the only labor-saving devices available then. Lumber and ties were usually provided by independent contractors who cut, hauled and sawed the timber as required.

Tunnels were blasted through hard rock by drilling holes in the rock face by hand and filling them with black powder. Sometimes cracks were found which could be filled with powder and blasted loose. The loosened rock would be collected and hauled out of the tunnel for use in a fill area or as roadbed, or else dumped over the side as waste.

A foot or so advance on a tunnel face was a typical day’s work. Some tunnels took almost a year to finish and the Summit Tunnel, the longest, took almost two years.

In the final days of working in the Sierras, the recently invented nitroglycerin explosive was introduced and used on the last tunnels including Summit Tunnel. Supply trains carried all the necessary material for the construction up to the railhead, with mule or horse-drawn wagons carrying it the rest of the ways if required.

Ties were typically unloaded from horse-drawn or mule-drawn wagons and then placed on the track ballast and leveled to get ready for the rails. Rails, which weighed the most, were often kicked off the flatcars and carried by gangs of men on each side of the rail to where needed. The rails just in front of the rail car would be placed first, measured for the correct gauge with gauge sticks and then nailed down on the ties with spike mauls.

The fishplates connecting the ends of the rails would be bolted on and then the car pushed by hand to the end of the rail and rail installation repeated. Track ballast was put between the ties as they progressed. Where a proper railbed had already been prepared, the work progressed rapidly.

Constantly needed supplies included “food, water, ties, rails, spikes, fishplates, nuts and bolts, track ballast, telegraph poles, wire, firewood or coal on the Union Pacific and water for the steam train locomotives, etc. Since juggling railroad cars took time on flat ground, where wagon transport was easier, the rail cars would be brought to the end of the line by steam locomotive, unloaded, and the flat car returned immediately to a siding for another loaded car of either ballast or rails.

Temporary sidings were often installed where it could be easily done to expedite getting needed supplies to the railhead. The railroad tracks, spikes, telegraph wire, locomotives, railroad cars, supplies etc.

Some freight was put on Clipper ships which could do the trip in about days. Some passengers and high-priority freight were shipped over the newly completed as of Panama Railroad across the Isthmus of Panama. Using paddle steamers to and from Panama, this shortcut could be traveled in as little as 40 days.

Supplies were normally offloaded at the Sacramento, California , docks where the railroad started. After great initial progress along the Sacramento Valley, construction was slowed, first by the foothills of the Sierra Nevada , then by cutting a railroad bed up the mountains themselves.

As they progressed higher in the mountains, winter snowstorms and a shortage of reliable labor compounded the problems. On January 7, , a want ad for 5, laborers was placed in the Sacramento Union.

Emigrants from poverty stricken regions of China, many of which suffered from the strife of the Taiping Rebellion , seemed to be more willing to tolerate the living and working conditions on the railroad construction, and progress on the railroad continued. The increasing necessity for tunneling as they proceeded up the mountains then began to slow progress of the line yet again. The first step of construction was to survey the route and determine the locations where large excavations, tunnels and bridges would be needed.

Crews could then start work in advance of the railroad reaching these locations. Supplies and workers were brought up to the work locations by wagon teams and work on several different sections proceeded simultaneously. One advantage of working on tunnels in winter was that tunnel work could often proceed since the work was nearly all “inside”.

Unfortunately, living quarters would have to be built outside and getting new supplies was difficult. Working and living in winter in the presence of snow slides and avalanches caused some deaths. To carve a tunnel, one worker held a rock drill on the granite face while one to two other workers swung eighteen-pound sledgehammers to sequentially hit the drill which slowly advanced into the rock.

Her research interests include HIV vaccine research, microbicide research and other biomedical and behavioural interventions, and she is an investigator in testing two HIV vaccine regimens in late stage clinical development. He has been an author on over manuscripts in the field of infectious diseases and has an extensive track record in infectious diseases research and practice covering clinical, laboratory and epidemiological aspects.

He is an HIV and TB immunologist focused on studying the immune response to these pathogens in affected tissues, and how this relates to what can be observed from the blood. The research goal is to improve understanding of the immunopathology of TB and HIV, using this information to aid in developing novel therapeutic approaches and diagnostic biomarkers. His research has centered on understanding the mechanisms by which the human immune system recognises the Mycobacterium tuberculosis M.